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Name: Pioneer® Seeds Australia
Address: 204 Wyreema Road, Toowoomba, QLD, 4350, Australia
Telephone: 1800 746 633
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{"data":{"resource":{"id":2,"name":"The critical relationship between water availability and grain fill","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"<\/p>","image":{"id":433,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-water-avail.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":155830,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.2":"The critical relationship between water availability and grain fill"},"created_at":"2021-11-25T23:02:36.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":433,"name":"corn-water-avail.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/433.jpeg","readable_size":"152.18 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjQzM30.RZL06-uiW147ptXyZjj5jLKWzIydGhzAinHW4423dus","full_path":"383\/433"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"the-critical-relationship-between-water-availability-and-grain-fill","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/the-critical-relationship-between-water-availability-and-grain-fill","meta_keywords":"corn, water, grain, fill, development, dent, stage, maize","meta_description":"The critical relationship between water availability and grain fill is essential to understanding the development of corn. Learn about grain fill stages, how water affects the process, the dent stage, and more in this informative article.","position":2,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:34:01.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","heading":"The critical relationship between water availability and grain fill","search":"critical relationship between water availability and grain fill","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"Water availability and grain fill","content_id":431,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":2},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. Explore these topics and enhance your knowledge of corn cultivation.","path_nodes":[{"id":3,"name":"Corn resources","name_id":"corn-resources"}],"parent_id":3,"position":10,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:56:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:38:53.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info | Corn Resources","content_id":433,"full_name":"Corn resources \u203a Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","pivot":{"resource_id":2,"resource_category_id":4,"position":45}}]},"cat":{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. Explore these topics and enhance your knowledge of corn cultivation.","path_nodes":"[{\"id\":3,\"name\":\"Corn resources\",\"name_id\":\"corn-resources\"}]","parent_id":3,"position":10,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:56:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:38:53.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info | Corn Resources","content_id":433,"full_name":"Corn resources \u203a Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","attached_panels":[],"parent":{"id":3,"name":"Corn resources","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"orange","image":{"id":390,"parent_id":null,"name":"RC-Corn-TN.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":207149,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":500,"height":450,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resource_categories.3":"Corn resources"},"created_at":"2021-11-02T05:39:06.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:35:15.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":390,"name":"RC-Corn-TN.jpg","parent_id":null}],"link":"\/asset\/390.jpeg","readable_size":"202.29 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjM5MH0.IatcThJGNmFuLqro9g4K1PZ-yeItG2AFwbFo0xCTqmQ","full_path":"390"},"name_id":"corn-resources","path":"corn-resources","meta_keywords":null,"meta_description":null,"path_nodes":null,"parent_id":null,"position":1,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:36:33.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:35:15.000000Z","title":null,"content_id":432,"full_name":"Corn resources","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources"}}}}

{"data":{"resource":{"id":15,"name":"Seed decay and seedling blights in corn","type":"html","intro":"What damage is caused by cold, wet weather and watering up?","content":"In some years, spring stand establishment problems can be severe due to saturated soils, cold soil temperatures, frost injury, herbicide injury, nitrogen deficiencies, seed decay and seedling blights. In some instances seed decay and seedling blight may progress into crown decay resulting in even more severe stunting and yellowing of plants.<\/p>\nConditions which delay seedling development and emergence give seed decay and seedling blight fungi more of an opportunity to attack developing corn seedlings. Seed decay and seedling blights of corn are generally caused by soil-inhabiting fungi species such as Pythium, Fusarium, Diplodia, Rhizoctonia and Penicillium. These fungi may rot the seed prior to germination or cause pre-emergence or post-emergence seedling blight.<\/p>\nAffected seeds are usually discoloured and soft and may be overgrown with fungi. Rotted seed may be difficult to find because they decompose very rapidly and soil adheres fairly tightly to the decomposing seed. With pre-emergence seedling blights, the seed germinates but the seedlings are killed before they emerge from the soil. The coleoptile and primary roots are usually discoloured and have a wet, rotted appearance.<\/p>\nMost of the fungi which cause seed decay and seedling blight of corn may also contribute to decay of the permanent root system and crown rot of young plants. Tips of the permanent root system may be water soaked and discoloured with the outer layers sloughing off.<\/p>\nThe Pythium, Fusarium, Diplodia, Rhizoctonia and Penicillium species are the primary cause of seed decay, seedling blight and crown decay. If conditions are favourable for germination and emergence, these fungi may not have the opportunity to invade seed, germinating seed or young seedlings so seed decay, seedling blights and crown rot will not be significant problems.<\/p>\nOn the other hand, conditions that are not favourable for germination and emergence, give these soil fungi more time to attack the seed and developing plants. Numerous other factors also contribute to early season corn establishment problems. Insect damage, nutrient imbalances, herbicide injury, soil conditions and environmental factors, especially saturated soil conditions and oxygen deprivation, may also cause or contribute to early season corn establishment problems.<\/p>\nCorn seedling blights are more severe in wet soils, from post plant irrigation or in soils that have been compacted or remain wet for an extended period of time. If soil temperatures are below 12°C the wet soil conditions favour Pythium seed decay and seedling blight.<\/p>\nDisease severity is also affected by planting depth, soil type, seed quality, mechanical injury to seed, soil crusting, herbicide injury or other factors which delay germination and emergence of corn. Planting high quality seed into a good seedbed when soil temperatures are above 12°C and rising will help minimise the potential for early season problems.<\/p>\nVirtually all field corn seed comes with a fungicide seed treatment. When evaluating corn stands this season, it is important to check several plants to determine the extent of damage to the initial root systems, the mesocotyls and the permanent root systems.<\/p>\nCN0623-14A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":434,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-seed-decay.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":165020,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.15":"Seed decay and seedling blights in corn"},"created_at":"2021-11-25T23:05:04.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":434,"name":"corn-seed-decay.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/434.jpeg","readable_size":"161.15 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjQzNH0.sL5I-n_VJm1e5eE_rVTZrhlP8vFigGxL-aK0gZjX-_o","full_path":"383\/434"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"seed-decay-and-seedling-blights-in-corn","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/seed-decay-and-seedling-blights-in-corn","meta_keywords":"corn, Pythium, Fusarium, Diplodia, Rhizoctonia , Penicillium, stunting, seed, hybrid","meta_description":"Seed decay and seedling blights are common diseases affecting corn, caused by pathogens such as Pythium, Fusarium, Diplodia, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, among others. Learn more about the symptoms, causes, and prevention measures.","position":15,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-11-22T06:35:34.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","heading":null,"search":"seed decay and seedling blights kw_in corn","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":null,"content_id":462,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":15},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":16,"name":"Best management practices for corn-after-corn production","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"<\/p>","image":{"id":432,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-after-corn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":108209,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.16":"Best management practices for corn-after-corn production"},"created_at":"2021-11-25T22:59:33.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":432,"name":"corn-after-corn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/432.jpeg","readable_size":"105.67 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjQzMn0.PAoHIuk8tmg4WGAd-6e12rz8srA95I3egN0XO2Ueryo","full_path":"383\/432"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"best-management-practices-for-corn-after-corn-production","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/best-management-practices-for-corn-after-corn-production","meta_keywords":"corn, hybrid, disease resistance, insects, nitrogen, drought, seed, buy, Australian, maize","meta_description":"Implementing the best management practices for corn-after-corn production is essential for maximising yields and minimising potential risks. Learn about the importance of choosing the right hybrid, considering disease resistance and insect control, managing nitrogen efficiently, and addressing drought conditions for successful corn production.","position":16,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-11-25T02:12:24.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","heading":"Best management practices for corn-after-corn production.","search":"best management practices corn_after_corn production","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"Best management practices for corn-after-corn production","content_id":463,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":16},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":17,"name":"Brittle snap injury in corn","type":"html","intro":"Brittle snap\u201d or \u201cgreen snap\u201d refers to breakage of corn stalks by violent winds, most often occurring during periods of rapid vegetative growth. Although uncommon in Australia, this weather-related phenomenon is sometimes reported in windy regions.","content":"<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Brittle snap or breakage of corn stalks is most likely to occur when high speed blustery winds occur during a violent seasonal storm.<\/li>\n<li>The two most common periods for brittle snap damage are V5 to V8, when the growing point is just advancing above the soil line, and V12 to R1, or two weeks prior to tasseling until silking.<\/li>\n<li>Many factors affect the severity of brittle snap injury, including growing conditions, field geography, crop management practices and soil type.<\/li>\n<li>Growth regulator herbicides can increase the incidence and severity of brittle snap injury by impacting cell division in the nodal area and increasing stalk brittleness.<\/li>\n<li>To spread the risk of brittle snap, growers should consider planting more than one hybrid or maturity group (CRM) and manage growth regulator herbicides very carefully.<\/li>\n<li>Australia screens potential new hybrids over many different locations throughout Australia for several years prior to commercial release.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>What is brittle snap?<\/h2>\nBrittle snap” or “green snap” refers to breakage of corn stalks by violent winds, most often occurring during periods of rapid vegetative growth. Although uncommon in Australia, this weather-related phenomenon is reported most frequently in regions where very high speed or violent winds occur during the storm season.<\/p>\nDuring corn’s vegetative growth phase, rapidly elongating internodes are often brittle and susceptible to breakage. The two most common periods for brittle snap damage are V5 to V8, when the growing point is just advancing above the soil line, and V12 to R1, or two weeks prior to tasseling until silking (Figure 1). Brittle snap damage to corn has occurred as long as corn has been grown.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_584\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\">\n<img src=\"\/asset\/429.jpeg\" alt=\"brittle_snap_corn_field.jpg\" \/> Figure 1. Snapped corn plants. V5 to V6 growth stage.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Brittle snap injury at V5 to V8 (25 to 75 cm)<\/h2>\nA corn plant at V5 (five visible leaf collars) is entering a period of rapid change. The growing point is just emerging above the soil, making the plant vulnerable to damage. The nodal root system is beginning to expand rapidly, greatly increasing the plant’s ability to take up water and nutrients to support accelerated plant growth. Rapid leaf and stalk growth follows this root system expansion. Stalk growth occurs by elongation of internode cells, which increases the rigidity of the stalk. Cell walls are extremely fragile at this rapid-growth stage and stalk tissues are at a greater risk of brittleness compared to other growth stages.<\/p>\nAt the V5 to V8 stage, many nodes and internodes are arranged together in a small area (Figure 2). This dense concentration may make the plants less flexible and more susceptible to breakage. Brittle snap observed at this stage often follows a surge in corn growth and development stimulated by favorable rainfall and temperature.<\/p>\nBrittle snap breakage at V5 to V8 occurs below the growing point, at a stalk node at or near the soil surface (Figure 1).<\/p>\nSnapped plants will not recover, nor contribute appreciably to yield. Tillers may emerge in subsequent weeks, but in most cases will not set harvestable grain, even though they may resemble a small corn stalk. Impact on yield will vary according to severity of stand reduction and subsequent growing conditions.<\/p>\nYield reduction from brittle snap at the V5 to V8 stage is often less than that occurring when the same number of plants are snapped near the tassel stage. One reason may be that remaining plants have more time and resources (sunlight, nutrients and moisture) to compensate for lost stand when injury occurs earlier in the growing season.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/428.jpeg\" alt=\"brittle_snap_corn_plants.jpg\" \/> Figure 2. Snapped corn plants. VT (tassel) growth stage.<\/span><\/p>\nYield reduction from brittle snap at the V5 to V8 stage is often less than that occurring when the same number of plants are snapped near the tassel stage. One reason may be that remaining plants have more time and resources (sunlight, nutrients and moisture) to compensate for lost stand when injury occurs earlier in the growing season.<\/p>\n<h2>Brittle snap damage at V12 through to tasseling<\/h2>\nFrom V12 through tasseling, the corn plant is undergoing its most rapid stage of growth. It will increase in size from 90 cm to its mature height of 210 to 300 cm in approximately 21 to 28 days, or about 5 to 10 cm of growth per day. A key factor increasing the incidence of brittle snap at this stage is the enlargement in leaf surface area and plant height, which increases wind resistance during a period of potential severe thunderstorms and wind events. The most common sites for breakage at this stage are at the nodes – immediately below, at or above the primary ear node.<\/p>\nPlants snapped at this stage often have visible ear shoots on the stalk shortly after the wind damage event (Figure 3). However, the severely reduced leaf surface area usually results in limited or no grain production on injured plants. Upon reaching mature height the risk of brittle snap diminishes as cell walls are strengthened by the deposition of lignin and other structural materials.<\/p>\n<h2>Brittle snap severity affected by many factors<\/h2>\nThe most important factor influencing brittle snap damage is the timing and severity of windstorms. Damaging winds often occur in a burst ahead of the rain. Dry, firm soil that tightly anchors the crown and roots of the plant at this time may result in increased breakage. In the same way, strong-rooted hybrids may incur more damage if the plant is prevented from “giving” at the base.<\/p>\nAfter a severe windstorm, growers often ask why one field has damage when a neighbouring field with the same hybrid does not. This is likely because straight line winds can be highly variable across small geographies. This phenomenon is obvious when observing damage to telephone poles, trees or buildings after a storm, so it is not surprising that it applies to corn fields as well. Wind “currents” and “downbursts” result in narrow zones of destruction that often cause more severe damage in one area than another.<\/p>\nIn addition to wind impact, any factor that stimulates, or conversely, hinders corn growth and development prior to the wind event can influence the incidence or severity of brittle snap injury. This includes growing conditions, crop management practices, field characteristics, genetics and herbicides.<\/p>\nWhen severe thunderstorms occur that result in widespread wind damage, it is important to sort out the contributing factors. Integral to the diagnosis is an accurate assessment of the field’s historical risk of injury. If the field is in an area that frequently experiences hail or thunderstorms associated with high winds, the annual risk may be greater than if the field is in an area that has rarely or never experienced brittle snap damage. Severe storms that cause breakage often have wind speeds of more than 100 km per hour. Such storms occur at a higher frequency than many expect. Storms with high winds usually occur during the classic “thunderstorm season”.<\/p>\nFactors affecting brittle snap severity:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Timing and severity of windstorms<\/li>\n<li>Growth conditions prior to the storm, such as temperature and soil moisture<\/li>\n<li>Crop management practices including tillage, fertility, plant population, row spacing and row direction<\/li>\n<li>Field characteristics such as topography and soil type<\/li>\n<li>Hybrid genetics<\/li>\n<li>Herbicide interactions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nEven small differences in management or environment can impact the extent of damage, sometimes dramatically. One commonly observed example is planting date. For wind- storms occurring at the V5 stage, even a small delay in plant development may result in protection to the growing point by the soil at the time of the wind event. Another example is temperature. Brittleness is greatest in rapidly growing corn under high temperature, high soil moisture conditions. Quick temperature changes that result in a sudden increase in corn growth may dramatically increase the risk of breakage.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_586\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\">\n<img src=\"\/asset\/430.jpeg\" alt=\"brittle_snap_corn_stalk.jpg\" \/> Figure 3. Dissected corn plant showing the developing structures inside the stalk, including the growing point, nodes and internode area.<\/p>\n<\/div>\nAny conditions which promote high yield and rapid growth may, unfortunately, also promote greater brittle snap damage. In fact, it is often the most productive fields with the highest yield potential that incur damage. A long-term study on nitrogen fertiliser rate, tillage and application timing at the University of Nebraska provided an opportunity to evaluate these factors when windstorms occurred (Ferguson, 1995). A July storm produced wind speeds up to 100 mph in 1993, and wind speeds up to 90 mph were recorded in a July, 1994 storm.<\/p>\nIn both years of wind damage, breakage increased with increasing nitrogen rates. Damage was greater when nitrogen was applied preplant versus sidedress. Damage in both years was also greater under conventional tillage then no-till. Ferguson concluded  that  “factors  which  accelerated crop growth early in the growing season also increased the susceptibility of the crop to stalk breakage.” When evaluating hybrid differences or unexpected hybrid responses (positive or negative) after a wind event, it is important to assess the genetic, cultural, weather and geographic factors that may have influenced the specific experience in that field.<\/p>\nThe V5 to V8 stage of development (approximately 10- to 24-inch corn) often coincides with or is followed by the application window for postemergence herbicides. Growth regulator herbicides such as 2,4-D, dicamba or clopyralid control weeds by the disruption of several growth processes including cell enlargement, cell division, protein synthesis and respiration.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_587\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\">\n<img src=\"\/asset\/431.jpeg\" alt=\"brittle_snap_vt_stage.jpg\" \/> Figure 4. Plants snapped at VT may develop ear shoots, but little contribution to yield is expected.<\/p>\n<\/div>\nGrowth regulator herbicides are translocated in both the xylem and the phloem to meristematic regions – areas of cell division and rapid growth – in both shoots and roots. The stalk nodes of corn are meristematic regions. Other meristematic regions in corn under rapid growth at this time are the developing ears, nodal roots and brace roots. Corn injury symptoms such as the malformation of brace roots and the temporary leaning and twisted appearance of plants shortly after application are due to the effect of these herbicides on the meristematic areas of the plant. Growth regulator herbicides can also increase the incidence and severity of corn brittle snap injury by impacting cell division in the nodal areas and increasing brittleness.<\/p>\nGenetic differences do exist among hybrids for brittle snap injury. In exploring these differences, agronomists have often noted a relationship between rapid early growth and a hybrid’s tendency towards brittleness in the early window for breakage (V5 to V8). However, there appears to be less of a relationship between early growth characteristics and increased risk of brittle snap in the near-tassel period. Some hybrids with comparatively slow early growth show increased risk, while other hybrids with relatively fast early growth have exhibited limited risk of injury at this stage.<\/p>\n<h2>Managing the risk of brittle snap injury<\/h2>\n <\/strong>Because brittle snap is a weather-related phenomenon, it is impossible to completely manage its risk. However there are ways to reduce the risk of brittle snap injury:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Plant more than one of hybrid or maturity every year. <\/strong>Hybrids that differ in maturity go through their windows of susceptibility to brittle snap injury at different times. Planting a package of diverse hybrids spreads the risk of injury, as it is unlikely that all hybrids will be at the same stage of development at the time of any one storm.<\/li>\n<li>Manage herbicide programs to minimise risk. <\/strong>Application of growth regulator herbicides, either alone or as part of a tank mix combination, can increase the risk of brittle snap injury. <\/span>Recognize that surfactants and nitrogen additives increase uptake and translocation of the herbicide in the corn plant, just as they do in target weeds. Additives can increase weed control, but can also increase your risk of crop injury. Always follow label instructions for proper rates and types of adjuvants.<\/li>\n<li>Plant seed at proper depth. <\/strong>Planting depth does not directly influence brittleness; however, planting to shallow can restrict nodal root development. One tolerance mechanism of corn for dicamba is exudation from roots (Fawcett, 1992). Corn plants with shallow or restricted root systems may experience decreased tolerance to dicamba, leading to increased risk of brittle snap or other injury symptoms such as brace root malformation. Planting at a minimum of 1.5 to 2 inches deep will encourage normal nodal root development and help alleviate these concerns.<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate crop insurance options in cases of increased risk of brittle snap (susceptible fields or hybrids).<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\nPioneer Australia’s hybrid testing for brittle stalk<\/strong><\/p>\nUnfortunately, all hybrids under the right environmental conditions and sufficient wind speeds can suffer brittle snap damage. There are no hybrids completely resistant to brittle snap, just as there are no hybrids resistant to hail, flood or many other weather-related causes of crop loss.<\/p>\nPioneer Australia does screen all of its pre- commercial hybrids for Brittle Snap over multiple geographical locations for several years prior to release. Pioneer employs a continuous, incremental approach to hybrid yield and trait improvement, including brittle snap resistance. Pioneer’s goal of bringing better products to customers faster to enhance productivity and profits.<\/p>\nReferences and further reading<\/strong><\/p>\nElmore, R. and L. Abendroth, 2006. Greensnap in Iowa. In Integrated Crop Management <\/em>newsletter IC-498(19), July 10, 2006 issue. Iowa State University Extension. Available online:<\/p>\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ipm.iastate.edu\/ipm\/icm\/2006\/7-10\/greensnap.html\">http:\/\/www.ipm.iastate.edu\/ipm\/icm\/2006\/7-10\/greensnap.html<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/p>\nFawcett, R.S. 1992. Corn breakage why and how. Fawcett Consulting.<\/p>\nCN0623-03A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":435,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-brittle-snapped.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":121941,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.17":"Brittle snap injury in corn"},"created_at":"2021-11-25T23:07:38.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":435,"name":"corn-brittle-snapped.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/435.jpeg","readable_size":"119.08 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjQzNX0.WLMJTgL-oivjxnAql5rRvi8y0lNSl4NPv54EZjDr7Ls","full_path":"383\/435"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"brittle-snap-injury-in-corn","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/brittle-snap-injury-in-corn","meta_keywords":"corn, snap, breakage, winds, regulator, stalk, tasselling","meta_description":"Brittle snap injury in corn can happen when strong winds cause breakage in the stalks, particularly during the tasseling stage. Learn about the causes and how to manage the injury with growth regulators.","position":17,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-11-25T05:40:31.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","heading":null,"search":"brittle snap injury kw_in corn","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":null,"content_id":464,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":17},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":18,"name":"Don't overlook potassium required in forage crop programs","type":"html","intro":"Good forage crops place a high demand for potassium (K) on the soil\u2019s nutrient-supplying power.","content":"<img style=\"float: right;\" src=\"\/asset\/441.jpeg\" alt=\"cor-pot-tn.jpg\" width=\"453\" height=\"340\" \/>Potassium is critical for forage crops in order to achieve high yields and quality that maximizes animal performance and profitability. <\/p>\nSoil potassium levels have also been influenced by a transition to more forage crops on dairy farms, particularly high yielding corn silage crops.<\/p>\nHigher yields result in higher K removal rates from the field.  Growers and advisors need to keep K fertility in mind when developing programs for high yielding corn silage.<\/p>\n<h2>Role of K in corn plant growth<\/h2>\nCorn requires potassium for proper growth and development.  Potassium plays an indirect role by acting as a catalyst regulating enzymatic processes in the plant.  Photosynthesis, cell division, carbohydrate production, protein synthesis, root development, and tolerance to temperature extremes are all influenced by K.<\/p>\nPotassium can also improve the crop’s tolerance to drought by regulating water use and can minimize susceptibility to disease.<\/p>\nIn corn, potassium deficiency can shorten the duration of leaf photosynthesis during the season and reduce the transport of nutrients and sugars within the stem.  As a result, plant integrity is compromised, starch formation is hindered, and use of N is limited.  Lodging of corn or small grains is often related to low K levels through reduced stalk strength and higher incidence of stalk disease.<\/p>\nThe real value of potassium to crop plants is most evident in times of stress.  Adequate and balanced nutrition maintains a plant’s vigor and reduces its vulnerability to stress.  When in proper balance with nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other micronutrients, sufficient potassium ensures high yields of quality forage.<\/p>\n<h2>Soil availability of Potassium<\/h2>\nThere are three types of potassium found in the soil.  The first is found in soil minerals. This type of potassium makes up more than 90 to 98 per cent of soil potassium.  It is tightly bound, and most is unavailable for plant uptake.  The second is non-exchangeable potassium.  <\/p>\nNon-exchangeable potassium acts as a reserve to replenish potassium taken up or lost from the soil solution.  <\/p>\nIt makes up approximately 1 to 10 per cent of the soil potassium. The last type is the exchangeable or plant available potassium at one to two percent. It is found either in the soil solution or as part of the cation exchange. <\/p>\nSoil type and environmental conditions have an effect on the amount of potassium available for plant use.  Potassium availability is highest under warm, moist conditions in soils that are well-aerated with a pH that is neutral or slightly acidic.  Too much water in the soil profile lowers oxygen levels, which in turn decreases plant respiration, reducing potassium uptake.<\/p>\nIn clay soils, potassium availability can be affected due to its competition with calcium and magnesium for sites on the cation exchange.  Both calcium and magnesium can easily displace potassium from the cation exchange.<\/p>\n<h2>Crop removal of Potassium<\/h2>\nCrops such as corn silage and lucerne both remove a tremendous amount of potassium from the soil profile.  A corn crop takes up nearly as much potassium as it does nitrogen, yet management of each nutrient is entirely different.<\/p>\nPotassium removal for Corn grain and silage<\/strong><\/p>\n<table border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"127\">\nCrop<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\nK removed \/ tonne DM<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\nAverage Yield<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"142\">\nK removed per hectare<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"127\">\nCorn Grain<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\n4.0<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\n12 t\/ha<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"142\">\n48<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"127\">\nCorn Silage<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\n10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"118\">\n22 DM t\/ha<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\" width=\"142\">\n220<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nSource: <\/strong> Growth Potential, Corn Growers’ Guide<\/p>\n<h2>Managing Potassium for Corn Silage<\/h2>\nCorn plants take up nearly as much potassium as nitrogen, yet each nutrient is managed differently.  Managing potassium is relatively simple because of the reaction of K in the soil.  <\/p>\nPotassium fertility management requires a long-term commitment to maintaining optimum soil test levels.  In addition, growers need to assess the removal rates of this nutrient in the harvested crop.  Corn silage will remove the highest amount of K since it accumulates in the vegetative material of a growing plant.  <\/p>\nNutrient uptake mirrors plant growth.  The highest demand period for K is during the grand growth phase of corn from V6 through silking.  Therefore, having high available K at this time is critical to ensuring successful plant development and growth. <\/p>\nMost growers will apply potassium ahead of planting.  This is often supplemented with starter fertiliser applications in the seed zone made during planting.  No matter which plant parts are harvested from the field, the growing corn plant will have the same potassium needs.  <\/p>\nThe big difference is in replacement of nutrients removed; corn silage fields may take five to six times more potassium than fields where only the grain was removed.<\/p>\n<h3>Taking it to the Field<\/strong><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Test: <\/strong>Soil test your fields regularly to track K levels, especially after lucerne and corn silage crops<\/li>\n<li>Calculate: <\/strong>Measure or estimate annual crop removal of potassium. Account for manure and other fertilizer sources applied to the field<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Plan: <\/strong>Make a plan to replace potassium based on removal rates, manure use and soil test level<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Corn: <\/strong>Apply needed potassium prior to planting and work<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\nCN0623-07A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":441,"parent_id":null,"name":"cor-pot-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":109575,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.18":"Don't overlook potassium required in forage crop programs"},"created_at":"2021-11-26T02:25:20.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":441,"name":"cor-pot-tn.jpg","parent_id":null}],"link":"\/asset\/441.jpeg","readable_size":"107.01 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjQ0MX0.Qs3NKybYDt56Rk0lDs_OkklRcBY_G-6TYzlfG9sdkCM","full_path":"441"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"dont-overlook-potassium-required-in-forage-crop-programs","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/dont-overlook-potassium-required-in-forage-crop-programs","meta_keywords":"corn, potassium, forage, yield, dairy, silage","meta_description":"Potassium is a crucial nutrient that is often overlooked in forage crop programs. 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Learn more about the importance of potassium in forage crop programs.","position":18,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-11-26T02:25:37.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:35.000000Z","heading":null,"search":"don kw_t overlook potassium required kw_in forage crop programs","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"Don't overlook potassium required in forage crop programs","content_id":465,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":18},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":44,"name":"Early-season herbicide injury in corn","type":"file","intro":null,"content":"<h2>Corn response to herbicides in adverse environments<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Fluctuating spring weather patterns can stress corn during emergence.<\/li>\n<li>Pre-emergence applied herbicides are typically activated well by rainfalls occurring during the spring.<\/li>\n<li>Cool temperatures, heavy precipitation and activated herbicides have the potential to cause injury to corn in some areas.<\/li>\n<li>Carry-over injury to corn can also occur when dry weather follows applications of some residual herbicides from the previous crop.<\/li>\n<li>Varying levels of pre-emergence injury as well as carry-over injury are observed each season throughout corn growing regions in Australia.<\/li>\n<li>In many cases, the crop response is limited to areas of heavier ponding or rainfall, where the environment shortly after planting played a major role inducing injury.<\/li>\n<li>Different modes of action affect corn in various ways.<\/li>\n<\/ul>","image":{"id":793,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-herbicide-injury.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":173736,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.44":"Early-season herbicide injury in corn"},"created_at":"2022-08-29T01:25:29.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":793,"name":"corn-herbicide-injury.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/793.jpeg","readable_size":"169.66 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjc5M30.ZFZ44_S65fGeRvrIO-TOVPwTrfYbtNfNK2hrdGtQTkA","full_path":"383\/793"},"file":{"id":792,"parent_id":383,"name":"Early-Season-Corn-Herbicide-Injury.pdf","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":2047861,"extension":"pdf","mime_type":"application\/pdf","width":null,"height":null,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.44":"Early-season herbicide injury in corn"},"created_at":"2022-08-29T01:21:32.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":792,"name":"Early-Season-Corn-Herbicide-Injury.pdf","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/792.jpg","readable_size":"1.95 MB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjc5Mn0.3pGkmIt9LHH-WfnmkyWTPhmFDaijaM2rdrotOuIcsys","full_path":"383\/792"},"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"early-season-herbicide-injury-in-corn","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/early-season-herbicide-injury-in-corn","meta_keywords":"Corn, response, herbicides, emergence, temperatures, inhibitors","meta_description":"Early-season herbicide injury in corn can negatively impact plant response, emergence, and overall growth. Learn about which herbicides can cause injury, the effects of temperature on injury, and how to prevent early-season damage. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":48,"name":"Pioneer Seeds Corn Growers Guide","type":"file","intro":null,"content":null,"image":null,"file":{"id":529,"parent_id":383,"name":"J5592_PIO_Growth Potential_Corn Growers Book A4_WEB-Spreads (003).pdf","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":4664565,"extension":"pdf","mime_type":"application\/pdf","width":null,"height":null,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.48":"Pioneer Seeds Corn Growers Guide"},"created_at":"2022-01-18T02:22:51.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":529,"name":"J5592_PIO_Growth Potential_Corn Growers Book A4_WEB-Spreads (003).pdf","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/529.jpg","readable_size":"4.45 MB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjUyOX0.tMFeSDtGusX5HAuKCEZ_VU_H63-coswEDYAmjv40XPs","full_path":"383\/529"},"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"pioneer-seeds-corn-growers-guide","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/pioneer-seeds-corn-growers-guide","meta_keywords":"yield, timing, management, silage, weed control, drought, fertiliser.","meta_description":"Achieving a successful corn crop requires proper management, including strategic timing, effective weed control, and appropriate fertilization. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":42,"name":"Do corn tillers hurt or help yields?","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"<\/p>","image":{"id":507,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-tillers-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":405303,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.42":"Do corn tillers hurt or help yields?"},"created_at":"2022-01-06T04:27:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":507,"name":"corn-tillers-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/507.jpeg","readable_size":"395.80 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjUwN30.U4hN9A6aDr7A_up8AJIM4NPlPHJIlimGLUq4MWI9XmE","full_path":"383\/507"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"do-corn-tillers-hurt-or-help-yields","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/do-corn-tillers-hurt-or-help-yields","meta_keywords":"maize, corn, tillers, suckers, yield, removal, research,","meta_description":"The impact of corn tillers (also known as suckers) on yields is a topic of interest and ongoing research. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":45,"name":"Common smut in corn","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"Common smut, a disease that occurs wherever corn is grown, is caused by Ustilago maydis, a fungus that survives on crop debris and on the soil. It can infect any tissue of the plant by entering through wounds and forming characteristic smut galls (Figures 1-3).<\/p>\nThe fungus can also enter through the silks, causing gall formation on the ear tip (Figures 4-5). Yield is reduced because of impaired plant function and even barrenness.<\/p>\nAlthough inoculum is widely present in corn fields, the severity of infestation depends on optimal conditions existing for the fungus to penetrate growing plants. Plant injury during early growth increases susceptibility to infestation and stress from drought, high plant density, or excessive nitrogen fertilisation also increases disease frequency.<\/p>","image":{"id":515,"parent_id":383,"name":"smut-in-corn-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":180930,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.45":"Common smut in corn"},"created_at":"2022-01-13T04:02:26.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":515,"name":"smut-in-corn-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/515.jpeg","readable_size":"176.69 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjUxNX0.LAbhpJ2IiEiUMt8inUxWh5J8Oc5yZXzXtZFX6xuDLqo","full_path":"383\/515"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"common-smut-in-corn","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/common-smut-in-corn","meta_keywords":"Corn, Ustilago maydis, smut, nitrogen, crop debris, plant, silks","meta_description":"Common smut in corn, caused by the fungus Ustilago maydis, can be a serious threat to corn crops, impacting yield and quality. Learn how to identify and manage this fungal disease, including the role of nitrogen, crop debris, and silks.","position":45,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-13T03:51:26.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","heading":"Common smut in corn","search":"common smut kw_in corn","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":null,"content_id":496,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":45},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":53,"name":"Corn yield in relation to stress","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"The size, placement, and amount of kernel set on the corn ear tell us when the ear was subjected to environmental stress and the severity of this stress.<\/p>\n<ul type=\"disc\">\n<li>\nUnderstanding how corn ears respond to stress can help determine what stress was present, when this stress occurred, and how to mitigate this stress in the<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\nIn general, ear responses to environmental stress factors at specific times of the corn life cycle include:<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<ul type=\"circle\">\n<li>\nA reduction in the number of kernel rows around the ear if substantial stress occurs at or just before ear initiation (approximately V7).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\nA reduction in the number of kernels along the length of the ear or a shorter ear if substantial environmental stress occurs from the late vegetative phase until just before<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\nA portion of the cob that may be barren if substantial environmental stress occurs during<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\nA portion of the cob that shows either very small kernels or kernel dieback if substantial environ- mental stress occurs during grain<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/ul>\nEnvironmental stresses during any of four ear development stages significantly affect the number and weight of harvestable kernels and subsequent grain yield in corn. The four critical stages are:<\/p>\n(1)   when the corn ear is setting the maximum number of kernel rows around the ear (approximately V7),<\/p>\n(2)   when the ear is establishing the maximum number of ovules along the length of the ear (just before pollination),<\/p>\n(3)   when the maximum number of ovules are pollinated to form developing embryos (at pollination), and<\/p>\n(4)   when the ear sets maximum kernel size during the latter portion of grain fill (approximately R3 to R5).<\/p>\nThis technical insight illustrates corn ear responses to some of the more common stresses that occur and explains why corn ears respond as they do.<\/p>\nNote that corn developmental stages used in this article are based upon the Iowa State Publication “Corn Growth and Development” (Abendroth et al., 2011).<\/p>\n<h2>Environmental stress during kernel row establishment<\/h2>\nDepending upon CRM, the corn plant determines the maximum number of rows around the ear at approximately the V5 to V8 stage in its life cycle. Figure 1 shows a picture of a developing corn ear at the V9 stage.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/536.jpeg\" alt=\"image001.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 1. Development of the primary ear, node 14 (dome ~ 400µm). Courtesy of Dr. Antonio Perdomo, DuPont Pioneer.<\/span><\/p>\nThe meristematic dome is present at the tip of the ear indicating the developing ear is still producing new rows of ovules along the length of the ear. The upper two-thirds of the ear shows a series of single rows of developing ovules. These ovules eventually divide to produce a pair of rows from each single row. This paired formation is visible near the base of the ear. This division explains why a corn ear always has an even number of kernel rows around the ear.<\/p>\nPlacement of the primary ear varies with corn genetics. The corn pictured in Figure 1 is 103 CRM, and the primary ear (the ear to be harvested) is located on the V14 node. In general, corn lines varying from approximately 103 to 118 CRM produce the primary ear on the V13 or V14 node. Corn lines of earlier maturity will place the primary ear on a lower node, such as the V12 node, while corn lines of longer maturity may place the primary ear on a higher node.<\/p>\nThe node of primary ear placement is an excellent reference point to determine when ear initiation starts. A general guideline is to determine the node containing the primary ear and then subtract seven. This V stage is approximately when the number of kernel rows around the ear is being established. For example, the corn line in Figure 1 positions the primary ear at the V14 node; thus, the number of kernel rows around the ear is being established at or very near the V7 stage.<\/p>\nEstablishment of the number of kernel rows around the ear is a critical event in the life cycle of a corn plant. If a particular corn line normally has 16 or 18 kernel rows around the ear and the ear in question has less than the normal number, then some sort of stress was present at or just before this critical stage. From a diagnostic perspective, if an ear has 12 kernel rows around instead of the normal 16, then the stress factor that caused this event was present at approximately V7. This information helps to establish a “time window” in looking for the environmental event that caused ear response to occur.<\/p>\nThe maximum number of ovules that the entire corn ear will produce is determined by the time the corn plant passes through approximately four more V stages.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/538.jpeg\" alt=\"image002.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 2. Development of the primary ear. Courtesy of Dr. Antonio Perdomo, DuPont Pioneer.<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 2 illustrates an ear harvested at the V12 stage from the same corn line as that in Figure 1. The meristematic dome is no longer present, so maximum potential ovule formation is now established. Paired ovule formation is apparent along nearly the entire length of the ear. From a diagnostic perspective, if an ear has the proper number of kernel rows around the ear but the ear is shorter than normal, then sufficient stress of some sort while the corn plant was around the V12 developmental stage may have caused this event.<\/p>\nCell division inhibitor herbicides, such as sulfonylurea herbicides, can substantially affect ear formation when misapplied during ovule formation. For most corn genetics, this is while the plant is between V7 and V10. Corn plants must metabolise these herbicides for crop safety. If metabolism is incomplete and sufficient active herbicidal ingredient is translocated to the developing ear, ovule formation may be inhibited. Such inhibition may stop ovules at the single-row developmental stage from doubling to form the paired row. When this occurs, the corn ear shows an abrupt change from a certain number of rows around the base of the ear to a lesser number of kernel rows around the ear at the tip. This is sometimes referred to as “pinched ears” (Figure 3).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/539.jpeg\" alt=\"image003.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 3. Ear pinching due to sulfonylurea herbicide misapplied during ear formation.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2>Environmental stress when the corn ear is establishing kernel number along its length<\/h2>\nGrowth of the developing ovules between the stages of ear initiation until pollination can be thought of as a dynamic, two-step process. The first step is the initiation of the ovules as explained in the previous section. The second step is the cell differentiation and cell division that must occur to prepare these ovules for fertilisation. At any moment in time between ear initiation and pollination, ovule formation differs along the length of the developing corn ear. Ovules near the base of the ear develop first and newer ovules will continue to form as development progresses toward the tip of the ear. After the corn plant has established the maximum number of ovules, the nutrients, energy, and water to sustain these developing ovules must be supplied. If all resources are adequate, ovules along the entire ear will develop sufficiently to produce silks and be receptive to pollen.<\/p>\nIf resources are limited, selected ovules will be sacrificed to allow the corn plant to adequately support the remaining viable ovules. Which ovules are sacrificed depends upon the amount, type, and duration of the stress. If the stress is a longer-term general stress, ovules near the tip of the ear are sacrificed, resulting in viable ovules only at the base of the developing ear. Ovules near the base of the ear are more likely to remain viable because these ovules are further developed and are closer to the source of nutrient supply. If the environmental stress is very short but very intense, the ovules that are sacrificed may be anywhere along the corn ear.<\/p>\nFigure 4 illustrates a corn hybrid grown in a semi-tropical climate. The same hybrid was planted every 4 days from December 20 to 28. During early ear formation, this corn was subjected to 2 single days of cold weather in which the temperature was less than 10 °C. The corn from the earliest planting date was either past or nearly past a critical point in ovule formation. The corn planted at the middle date was midway through this critical phase, while the latest planted corn was just entering the critical developmental period. Ovules formed after this environmental stress had passed developed normally.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/540.jpeg\" alt=\"image004.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 4. Cold chilling shock at different stages of development<\/span><\/p>\nA physiological response that produces very short ears, sometimes called ‘beer can ears’ appears to be due to a combination of environmental stress, possibly cold stress or drought stress during a critical stage in ovule formation, and genetics (Figure 5).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/542.jpeg\" alt=\"image005.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 5. Very short ears, also called ‘beer can ears.’<\/span><\/p>\nArrested ears are associated with application of fungicide or insecticide with NIS or COC adjuvant in the two-week period preceding pollination (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/541.jpeg\" alt=\"image006.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 6. Arrested ear resulting from foliar application of an adjuvant at V14 growth stage.<\/span><\/p>\nArrested ears differ from ‘silk balling.’ ‘Silk balling’ occurs when the silks lose orientation during the pollination process and begin to grow in many different directions inside the husk. We are not certain what causes ‘silk balling’. The event may be related to a combination of a brief interval of cold stress or drought stress sometime during the silk growth cycle and certain corn genetics.<\/p>\nThe key to distinguishing between ‘beer can ears’ and ‘silk balling’ is to determine if silks are still present in the husk. The environmental stress that causes ‘beer can ears’ produces either short ears or ears with long cobs and kernel set only near the base of the ears. Very few or no silks are present inside the husks of these ears. The environmental stress that causes ‘silk balling’ may also produce long ears with kernel set only near the base of the ear. The difference is ‘silk balled’ ears will very often contain a mass of silks inside the husks. Silks remain attached to developing ovules until these ovules are successfully fertilised. These ovules degrade if they are not fertilised. However, the silks can often remain in the husk until the ear is mature.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/543.jpeg\" alt=\"image007.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 7. ‘Silk balling’ (top) results in cobs with bare ends.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2>Environmental stress during pollination<\/h2>\nSuccessful fertilisation of mature ovules requires viable pollen to land on receptive silks. Insect pests, may clip silks as they feed, resulting in poor pollination with subsequent poor kernel set.<\/p>\nThere are two basic parts to the pollination process. First, viable pollen must land on receptive silks, and second, the silks must support the formation of pollen tubes to allow male gametes to fuse with female gametes inside the ovule. A large portion of mature pollen is usually released from corn anthers in mid-morning, depending upon environmental conditions. A minimum of 100 grains of pollen per square centimetre per day is needed to successfully pollinate a corn field. Pollen may lose viability within a few minutes if air temperatures are high (approximately 40 °C) and water deficit stress is present. Pollen grains contain about 80% water when first shed. These pollen grains die when the water content decreases to about 40%.<\/p>\nA lot of corn is successfully pollinated under higher temperature conditions. If soil moisture is adequate and the corn plant can transpire water rapidly enough to supply necessary water to the pollen, the pollen remains viable long enough to properly shed and complete the fertilisation process. However, if the water supply is inadequate, pollen will die prematurely and not complete the fertilisation process.<\/p>\nThe second part of successful fertilisation of ovules is the formation of the pollen tube and deposition of male gametes inside the ovule. This process relies heavily on the female portion of the plant because the silks supply all of the necessary nutrients and water for growth of pollen tubes. Based upon all of the pictures we have seen to date, viable pollen grains adhere to silk trichomes — not directly to the silks — to start the fertilisation process.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/546.jpeg\" alt=\"image008.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 8. Pollen attached to silk trichomes. Courtesy of Dr. Don Aylor, University of Connecticut.<\/span><\/p>\nTrichomes are hair-like projections that extend from the main stem of the silk, much like root hairs extend from a plant root. Within a few minutes after landing on the trichomes, the pollen grains start to initiate pollen tubes. These pollen tubes seem to always grow near the silk vascular bundle. This may occur because these vascular tissues contain a readily available source of water and nutrients essential for growth.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/544.jpeg\" alt=\"image009.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 9. Pollen tubes growing along silk vascular tissue. Courtesy of Dr. Antonio Perdomo, DuPont Pioneer.<\/span><\/p>\nDepending upon water availability and environmental conditions, it may take just a few hours to one day for pollen tubes to grow all the way to the ovules. The amount of water available for silk growth substantially influences when silks emerge, their rate of growth, their length of receptivity, and their ability to supply water and nutrients to support pollen tube growth and fusion of gametes. From a diagnostic perspective, corn plants that are growing under stress during pollination produce ears with portions of the cobs being barren (examples shown in Figure 12). Portions of the cob are barren because mature ovules were not properly fertilised. These unfertilised ovules begin to disintegrate and disappear before the ear reaches physiological maturity.<\/p>\n<h2>Environmental stress during grain fill<\/h2>\nA successfully fertilised kernel goes through two phases in the approximately eight weeks between pollination and physiological maturity. For approximately the first three weeks after pollination, embryo cells are rapidly differentiating and dividing to produce the tissues necessary for the embryonic corn plant contained within the kernel. The remaining weeks of grain fill are devoted primarily to starch and storage tissue deposition to support new plant growth when this generation of seed is planted. All kernels are attached to the cob (Figure 11), and all kernels compete for available food and water.<\/p>\nOnly those kernels that receive ample moisture and nutrients live. Typically, kernels near the butt of the ear develop a little earlier and are closer to the source of nutrients than kernels at the tip of the ear.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/548.jpeg\" alt=\"image010.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 11. Kernel attachment to the cob.<\/span><\/p>\nWhen stress is present, the ear will often sacrifice the tip kernels in favour of kernels at the butt of the ear. Depending upon the severity of the stress, tip kernel dieback will continue until the point at which the corn plant can supply adequate water and nutrients to support growth of the remaining kernels. Kernel formation or the lack thereof is an indicator of the time of stress occurrence – whether it occurred before or during pollination or during grain fill. If a portion of the cob is barren with no evidence of viable kernel formation, the stress occurred at or before pollination. If a portion of the cob shows either very small kernels or kernel dieback, the stress occurred sometime during the grain-filling process. If tip kernels did not abort but their test weight is decreased, the stress occurred during the very latter part of grain fill.<\/p>\n<img style=\"float: left;\" src=\"\/asset\/545.jpeg\" alt=\"image011.jpg\" \/> <img src=\"\/asset\/547.jpeg\" alt=\"image012.jpg\" width=\"323\" height=\"213\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 12. Stress during grain fill very often results in tip kernel dieback or some sort of kernel abortion.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2>Conclusions<\/h2>\nThe size, placement, and amount of corn kernel set tell us when the ear was subjected to environmental stresses and the severity of these stresses. Knowledge of ear development helps agronomists and corn producers determine when stresses occurred. It also provides a starting point for developing management practices to mitigate these stresses in the future. This could lead to more complete pollination and grain fill in addition to subsequent higher grain yields.<\/p>\nAcknowledgements:<\/strong><\/p>\nAbendroth, L., R.W. Elmore, M.J. Boyer, and S.K. Marlay. 2011. Corn growth and development. PMR 1009. Iowa State Univ. Extension.<\/p>\nRice, M.E. 2015. Corn rootworm silk feeding. Crop Focus. DuPont Pioneer, Johnston, IA. See original <a title=\"Corn rootworm data\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pioneer.com\/home\/site\/us\/agronomy\/crop-management\/corn-insect-disease\/corn-rootworm-silk-feeding\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">corn rootworm report<\/a>.<\/p>\nStrachan, S. D. 2016. Relating silk emergence at pollination to kernel set at harvest. Crop Insights Vol. 26, No. 9. DuPont Pioneer, Johnston, IA.<\/p>\nThe foregoing is provided for informational use only. Please contact your Pioneer representative for information and suggestions specific to your operation. Product performance is variable and depends on many factors such as moisture and heat stress, soil type, management practices and environmental stress as well as disease and pest pressures. Individual results may vary.<\/p>\nCN0623-05A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":537,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-yied-relation-to-stress-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":160957,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.53":"Corn yield in relation to stress"},"created_at":"2022-01-19T04:44:44.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":537,"name":"corn-yied-relation-to-stress-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/537.jpeg","readable_size":"157.18 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjUzN30.l3f021rXs4LAUfVzSEGm667Z2AeXRRIHSOzDU0IzgfU","full_path":"383\/537"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"corn-yield-in-relation-to-stress","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/corn-yield-in-relation-to-stress","meta_keywords":"corn, size, placement, kernel, set, stress, ear, development, maize, seed","meta_description":"Understand the relationship between stress during ear development and corn grain yield. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":54,"name":"Autumn frosted corn crops","type":"html","intro":"Low autumn temperatures can kill corn tissue before the plant reaches maturity. When an early autumn frost occurs, corn growers need to know the impact of the damage on hybrid maturity and yield. This technical bulletin provides information on the effect.","content":"<h2>Conditions causing frost damage<\/h2>\nThe severity of frost damage will depend largely on the duration and extent of freezing temperatures. Substantial frost damage of leaf, stalk and stem tissue may occur if temperatures drop below 0°C for 4-5 hours or when temperature drops to -2°C or less for even a few minutes. Frost damage due to rapid heat loss from within the crop can occur when temperatures are several degrees above zero if the air is clear and still. Under these circumstances, leaf temperatures can drop below the actual air temperature.<\/p>\nWhere air temperature is close to freezing, frosting can occur in low-lying areas where the cold air tends to accumulate. Higher spots within the same paddock may not sustain any frost damage. A dense corn crop can trap considerable warmth within its canopy. Outer rows and areas of paddocks that are low in plant population are more frost prone. Corn plant parts vary in susceptibility to frost damage. Leaves are most susceptible because their thinness makes it difficult for them to hold heat. Thicker plant tissues such as stalks, husks and grain have greater heat retention capabilities.<\/p>\n<h2>Assessing frost damage<\/h2>\nA visual inspection of frost-damaged corn should be made the morning after the frost, after the sun has risen and the crop has begun to thaw. At this time, damaged tissue will begin to wither and cell contents will be released as a sugary coating on the leaves and stem.<\/p>\nAs you assess the crop, take into account the number of leaves that have been frosted, cob or stalk damage and the proportion of the paddock that has been affected. It is important to assess the stage of maturity of the crop in terms of how far away the crop was from harvest when it was frosted. Remember, as mentioned above, the outer rows and any hollows in the crop are likely to be more affected by frost than the rest of the crop. Always walk well into and through the crop to make an accurate assessment of damage. Generally, there is warmer air entrapped in the main body of the crop and the initial frost does not penetrate the crop canopy as far.<\/p>\n<h2>Silage crops - less than ½ milk-line<\/h2>\nIn most cases, frost damage will be limited to a proportion of the leaves. The leaf is normally only about 15-20% of the total yield. Frosted leaves will change from green to grey before turning brown and drying off. Some leaves that appear frost damaged may recuperate given time. Normally, remaining leaves along with the photosynthetic tissue in the stalk will be sufficient to allow the plant to continue to mature. Immature frosted corn silage crops will be very wet. It will be impossible to ensile these without a high risk of effluent run-off and subsequent energy and drymatter losses. The crop should therefore be left to mature and monitored carefully to ensure that it is harvested in the optimum whole plant drymatter range of 30-38%. Do not be tempted to harvest too soon. Yield will continue to increase even after a frost. Early harvest will mean decreased drymatter yields and a higher risk of a poor fermentation and wet, reduced quality silage.<\/p>\nIn the rare case of an extreme frost killing all of the leaf and also the stalk, ear shank and husk, the crop will start to dry down relatively rapidly. Once again, monitor the crop carefully to ensure that it is harvested in the optimum range of 30-38% whole plant drymatter. As a last resort, grain or straw can be added to increase the drymatter of the silage. About 14 kg per tonne of grain, hay or straw per wet tonne of harvest material will be required to increase the drymatter by 1%. Since it is virtually impossible to assess drymatter of frosted crops visually, it is recommended that a sample is submitted to a laboratory or a microwave drymatter test is carried out.<\/p>\n<h2>Silage crops - ½ milk-line or greater<\/h2>\nIf the frost occurs after the crop has reached silage harvest maturity (30% drymatter), the crop should be ensiled as soon as possible. Frosted corn will dry rapidly especially during warm weather. Organise for your contractor to harvest at the first opportunity. Do not panic, you will normally have several days to harvest the crop before it becomes too dry. In addition, please consider the points made under the section Nitrate in Frosted Crops below. If the crop is over 38% drymatter at harvest, a finer chop length of 8-10 mm should be used. Particular care must be taken to ensure that the crop is well compacted. Further details on the ensiling of dry crops are given in the Pioneer Technical Insight - Harvesting Dry Corn.<\/p>\n<h2>Pioneer® brand 11c33 silage inoculant<\/h2>\nResearch has shown that nature does not always provide enough of the right bacteria for a fast, efficient fermentation. The use of Pioneer® brand 11C33 corn silage inoculant is recommended for frosted crops. 11C33 improves corn silage quality and drymatter recovery. It works by improving fermentation efficiency while reducing growth of yeast and mould responsible for heating and spoilage at feed-out. Note that while silage can be fed immediately after harvest maximum aerobic stability gains will be made when it is fermented 30 day prior to feeding.<\/p>\n<h2>Nitrate in frosted crops<\/h2>\nNitrogen is taken into the corn roots mainly in the nitrate form. When conditions are favourable for growth, it moves up the stalk into the leaves where it is built into proteins. Under normal conditions, as the plant nears maturity, nitrate levels gradually decline to zero. Nitrate levels of crops frosted prior to silage harvest are sometimes high. This can affect animal health and in extreme cases, may result in stock losses.<\/p>\nThe following management options will decrease the risk of nitrate poisoning:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Delay harvest where possible. Provided that the crop is not too dry, delay harvest for at least three fine days after a frost. This will decrease nitrate levels.<\/li>\n<li>If a frosted crop needs to be chopped immediately because it is dry, consider leaving a 30 cm stubble. Nitrate accumulation is highest in the bottom of the stem.<\/li>\n<li>Frosted corn silage crops should ferment a full three weeks before feeding. It is best to feed frosted crops as silage rather than green-feed or green-chop because field experience has shown that fermentation may reduce plant nitrate levels.<\/li>\n<li>A forage nitrate test is recommended when a frosted crop is green-fed, green-chopped or ensiled. For green-feed or green-chop, test immediately prior to feeding. For corn silage, test prior to ensiling. If the levels are high, the harvest height may need to be increased. Retest prior to feeding.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nTable 1 gives guidelines as to the \"safe\" levels of nitrate in silage.<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100.055%; height: 361.6px; border-style: solid;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"border-style: solid; height: 84.4px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 84.4px;\">Nitrate - ion (%)<\/td>\n<td>Nitrate - nitrogen (ppm)<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; text-align: center; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 84.4px;\">Comment<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 35.2px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 35.2px;\">0.0-0.44<\/td>\n<td><1,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 35.2px;\">Safe to feed under all conditions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 58px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">0.44-0.66<\/td>\n<td>1,000-1,500<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">Safe to feed to non-pregnant animals. Limit use for pregnant animals to 50% of the total diet on a DM basis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 34px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 34px;\">0.66-0.88<\/td>\n<td>1,500-2,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 34px;\">Safely fed if limited to 50% of the total DM intake<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 58px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">0.88-1.54<\/td>\n<td>2,000-3,500<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">Feeds should be limited 35-40% of the total DM intake. Do not feed to pregnant animals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 58px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">1.54-1.76<\/td>\n<td>3,500-4,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 58px;\">Feeds should be limited 25% of the total DM intake. Do not feed to pregnant animals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 34px; border-style: solid;\">\n<td style=\"width: 14.8706%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 34px;\">Over 1.76<\/td>\n<td>>4,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 69.5638%; border-style: none; border-width: 0px; height: 34px;\">Feeds containing these levels are potentially toxic. DO NOT FEED.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n<h2>Feed value of frosted silage crops<\/h2>\nThe effect of a frost on the feed value of corn silage will depend on the magnitude of the frost and crop maturity. Plant digestibility is highest at about half milk-line but shows little change from when the kernels are in the dough stage (when the milk-line first appears) until the milk-line disappears. This is because corn leaves and stalks are high in non-structural carbohydrates (energy) late in the season and these are eventually transferred to the ear. When the whole plant is ensiled, it makes little difference whether the carbohydrates are in the ear or in the leaves.<\/p>\nCrude protein declines continually as the plant matures and is usually higher in immature frosted crops than in corn harvested at the correct maturity.<\/p>\nFrost may decrease the palatability of corn silage slightly. This is not normally of major concern. If necessary, molasses can be added at feed-out until the animals have become accustomed to the flavour of the silage.<\/p>\n<h2>Frosted grain crops<\/h2>\nThe effect of a frost on grain yield is determined by the amount of leaf that is killed and the stage of development when the frost occurs. The closer the plant is to black layer the lower the yield loss caused by a frost. Even if all of the leaves are killed, the plant can still continue to mature as sugars are mobilised from the stalks to the ear. Grain dry weight will continue to increase up until black layer as long as there are leaves (especially above the ear) or even if just the stalk and the husk cover are still green. If there are several days of cool temperatures (7°C -12°C) during grain fill, premature black layer may occur and grain fill will cease. This can happen even if there has not been a frost.<\/p>\nThe potential grain loss from an autumn frost at different stages of grain development is shown in Table 2 (adapted from Afuakwa, J.J. and Crookston, R.K. 1984. Using the kernel milk-line to visually monitor grain maturity in corn. Crop Sci. 24:687-691)<\/p>\nTable 2: Potential losses in corn grain yield after frost<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100.055%; height: 218px;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 51px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 51px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">Corn development stage<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 51px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">Killing frost<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 51px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">Light frost<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 32px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 32px; background-color: #ced4d9;\"> <\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 32px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">(leaves and stalk)<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 32px; background-color: #ced4d9;\">(leaves only)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 27px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 27px; background-color: #ced4d9;\"> <\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 27px; width: 68.571%; background-color: #ced4d9;\" colspan=\"2\">Percent yield loss<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 27px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 27px;\">1\/3 Milk-line<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 27px;\">55<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 27px;\">35<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 27px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 27px;\">_ Milk-line<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 27px;\">40<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 27px;\">25<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 27px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 27px;\">2\/3 Milk-line<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 27px;\">12<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 27px;\">5<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 27px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 31.3756%; height: 27px;\">Black layer<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 29.2249%; height: 27px;\">0<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 39.3461%; height: 27px;\">0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\nGrain crops frosted prior to 1\/3 milk-line will have a low grain yield potential and the kernels will be chaffy. It is recommended that these crops are earmarked for corn silage and left to mature to silage harvest drymatter (as outlined above). When a grain crop is frosted at 1\/3 milk-line the yields will be reduced by 50% unless some leaves survived the frost (Table 2). Severely frosted crops will need to be field dried for a long time and this will result in high field losses since corn which is frosted at an immature stage tends to have a greater incidence of stalk breakage. Ear moulds may develop when drying is slow and test weight is likely to be low. During combining, grain will be susceptible to breakage and the wet core may break into several pieces increasing the risk of grain rejection or discounting due to broken grain and foreign material. For many crops that are frosted prior to ½ milk-line, corn silage is the best option.<\/p>\nCorn grain crops that are killed by frost after ½ milk-line will have reduced yield (Table 2) and test weights will be below normal. If only a portion of the plant tissue is killed and if the grain was close to black layer, the yield loss will be small and test weights will be closer to normal.<\/p>\nA study in the USA simulating frost at milk-line (approximately 55% grain moisture) indicated that corn killed immaturely by a frost dried normally when environmental conditions were favourable. The dry down was delayed for a few days after the frost and this resulted in 4-9 more days to reach a harvest moisture level of 22-30% compared to non-frosted corn. This will delay harvest and\/or increase drying charges. Severe frost will not affect grain yield or quality after physiological maturity (black layer).<\/p>\n<h2>Reducing the risk of frost damage<\/h2>\nThe risk of frost damage in the autumn can be reduced by planting early. Shorter maturity hybrids should be used if planting is delayed. Paddock selection is important in frost prone areas. Choose a paddock that is sloping and\/or has a northerly aspect if possible. Avoid flat paddocks surrounded by higher ground.<\/p>\nCN0623-01A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":549,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-autumn-frost-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":305554,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.54":"Autumn frosted corn crops"},"created_at":"2022-01-20T22:36:48.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":549,"name":"corn-autumn-frost-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/549.jpeg","readable_size":"298.39 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU0OX0.VAhlEGEX18t6nvFOchppimc8quW9fGxVbeFZf_9fVyE","full_path":"383\/549"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"autumn-frosted-corn-crops","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/autumn-frosted-corn-crops","meta_keywords":"corn, frost, damage, temperature, leaf, zero, stalk, Australian, seed","meta_description":"Frost can cause damage to autumn corn crops when temperatures drop to or below freezing, resulting in wilted leaves and stalk damage. Learn how to identify and prevent zero-degree damage to your corn crops.","position":54,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-20T05:15:46.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","heading":"Autumn frosted corn crops","search":"autumn frosted corn crops","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":null,"content_id":510,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":54},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":56,"name":"Water retention and nutrient availability in soil","type":"html","intro":"Water held in soil is essential for plant growth. Each rainfall and irrigation event replenishes soil water as growing crop plants deplete this water. Soil texture, bulk density, and organic matter primarily determine the soil\u2019s water-holding capacity.","content":"<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Soil texture, bulk density, and organic matter content determine soil water holding capacity<\/li>\n<li>Water’s adhesive and cohesive properties create forces to retain plant-available water within the root zone<\/li>\n<li>Soil compaction increases bulk density, determines pore size and volume distribution, and ultimately limits water and nutrient uptake in plants<\/li>\n<li>Soil compaction reduces the rate of water penetration to recharge the soil profile during a rainfall or irrigation event, reduces gaseous exchange and limits oxygen uptake by plant roots within the soil profile by reducing the macropore concentration, and limits the ability of roots to grow into new soil to extract water and nutrients<\/li>\n<li>Increasing soil compaction is an unavoidable result of broadacre crop production.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nWays to manage soil compaction are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Match implement sizes to drive on the same wheel tracks<\/li>\n<li>Do not randomly drive across fields with heavy implements but follow established wheel tracks<\/li>\n<li>Till soils at the proper moisture content<\/li>\n<li>Reduce the number of tillage operations per growing season<\/li>\n<li>Properly match equipment loads and weight distribution to tillage operations<\/li>\n<li>Mange your operation to increase soil organic matter<\/li>\n<li>Plant rotational or winter cover crops with root structures that tend to reduce soil compaction as these roots grow<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Introduction<\/h2>\nWater held in soil is essential for plant growth. Each rainfall and irrigation event replenishes soil water as growing crop plants deplete this water. Soil texture, bulk density, and organic matter primarily determine the soil’s water-holding capacity. The physical properties of water and soil govern a soil’s ability to retain water and the plant’s ability to extract this water. Soil compaction is a ‘hidden yield robber (Figure 1). Management that minimises soil compaction and increases organic matter creates the greatest opportunity for soil to retain the maximum amount of plant-available water and nutrients to support plant growth.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/561.jpeg\" alt=\"image001.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 1.<\/strong> Areas of stunted yellow corn in a field likely resulting from soil compaction created during the previous harvest. Soil compaction can restrict root growth of plants as well as reduce the ability of soil to retain and supply water.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>How does soil retain water?<\/h2>\nThree physical properties of water – ionic interactions with nutrients and other ions, a strong force of cohesion, and a strong force of adhesion – create the forces that hold water within the plant root zone (Strachan and Jeschke, 2017). Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to stick to other water molecules. Adhesion is the ability of water molecules to stick to other molecules that are not water molecules. These forces interact with soil-bound cations, clay minerals, organic matter, and other solid materials that constitute soil colloids. If these forces were not present, the force of gravity would pull water molecules deeper into the soil profile where they would no longer be available for plant uptake. Soil pores retain plant-available water. Soil texture, organic matter content, and bulk density determine the distribution and size of soil pores (Hillel, 1980).<\/p>\nThe soil mineral fraction consists of silicates and aluminum hydroxy silicates, and soil organic matter contains oxygen and nitrogen atoms essential for retaining water. Oxygen and nitrogen atoms in both soil constituents are capable of hydrogen bonding with hydrogen atoms of water molecules. In addition, the chemical structure of aluminum hydroxy silicates in the soil mineral fraction and the molecular structure of organic acids and other materials in soil organic matter create net negative charges that are dispersed among water molecules located next to these soil constituents. Negative charges associated with soil minerals and organic matter also create cation exchange sites. Cations associated with these sites produce positive charges that are dispersed among the water molecules located next to these cations. The combined forces of ionic charge dispersal and hydrogen bonding hold water molecules very tightly within the soil matrix and negate the downward force of gravity (Figure 2).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/559.jpeg\" alt=\"image003.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 2.<\/strong> A combination of forces resulting from hydrogen bonding and ionic charge dispersal hold the first ring of water molecules very tightly to soil. Corn roots cannot easily extract these water molecules from soil.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\nAdditional rings of water molecules surround the innermost ring of water molecules tightly associated with soil colloids (Figure 3).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/556.jpeg\" alt=\"image005.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 3.<\/strong> Multiple rings of water molecules form around each soil colloid. As each ring of water forms farther from the soil colloid, forces pulling water molecules toward the soil colloid diminish. Rings of water farthest removed from soil colloids are more available for plant uptake.<\/p>\n <\/p>\nThese additional rings of water are held in place through the forces of hydrogen bonding or ionic charge dispersal. Ionic charge dispersal is a stronger force expressed over short distances because, as more water molecules disperse an ionic charge, the ionic force per interaction decreases. As rings of water molecules further from the soil colloid form, the weaker force of hydrogen bonding becomes the more dominant force. Water present in rings further from soil colloids is not as tightly associated with soil colloids and is therefore more readily available for plant uptake by plant roots. Figure 3 depicts only a few rings of water molecules. In the ‘real world’, there are many layers of water molecules with different levels of different forces pulling on these molecules.<\/p>\nThe size of the opening at the base of the soil pore deter-mines the pore’s ability to retain water (Hillel, 1980). Water molecules stretch across a pore space formed between soil colloids like a chain stretches between two poles (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/553.jpeg\" alt=\"image007.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 4.<\/strong> Water molecules behave like links in a chain.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\nFor very small openings, the combined forces of ionic charge dispersal and hydrogen bonding hold water molecules in place. As the pore opening increases, the weaker force of hydrogen bonding becomes more dominant (Figure 5).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/558.jpeg\" alt=\"image009.jpg\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\nFigure 5.<\/strong> Multiple forces are pulling on all water molecules in the soil profile.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\nThe chain of water molecules breaks when the downward force of gravity is greater than the lateral and upward forces of hydrogen bonding. When the chain breaks, water drains from the soil pore (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/557.jpeg\" alt=\"image011.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 6.<\/strong> For soil pores with larger openings at their base, the force of gravity is stronger, and water drains from the centre of the pore.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\nIf the soil pore is small, water remains in the pore. If the pore is larger, water drains from the centre of the pore. Liquid water associated with crushed ice in an excellent model to show how soil pores retain water (Figure 7).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/555.jpeg\" alt=\"image013.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 7.<\/strong> Model of liquid water in crushed ice illustrating how soil pores retain water. Micropores (red ovals) are full with water while macropores (blue oval) retain water only along edges of solid surfaces.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\nMacropores and micropores comprise approximately 40- 50% of the volume of an undisturbed, well-granulated silt loam soil (Brady, 1990). The amount of water present in this soil depends on when the last rainfall or irrigation event occurred and the water demand of the crop (Figure 8).<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/554.jpeg\" alt=\"image015.jpg\" \/><\/p>\n <\/p>\nFigure 8.<\/strong> Volumes of water and air associated with soil pores in 100 grams of a well-granulated silt loam soil.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n <\/p>\nAll soil pores contain water shortly after a substantial rainfall or irrigation event. The force of gravity pulls water molecules downward and drains water from the macropores. This continuous mass of water moves via saturated flow. As the water drains, the retentive forces exerted by soil colloids and the water molecules themselves eventually negate the force of gravity.<\/p>\nWhen these forces are in balance, the soil is at field capacity for water retention. Subsequent water movement is via unsaturated flow, a very slow process for water movement. Soils at field capacity can stay at, or very near, field capacity for a long time if there is no water demand from growing plants. The balancing of these retentive forces with gravity and the very slow water movement of unsaturated flow allow soils to ‘recharge’ with water during the winter months in preparation for the growing season.<\/p>\nPlant roots pull water from soil until the retentive forces exerted by soil colloids equal the pulling forces of plant roots. When these soil retentive forces become greater, they overpower plant root pulling forces and plants wilt. Although water is still present in the soil, soil colloids hold this water so tightly that this water is not available for plant uptake. Proper water management must therefore focus on how to maximize the time that water levels in the soil are between field capacity and wilting point levels. This includes tiling and other forms of drainage to drain saturated or nearly saturated soils more quickly and irrigation to meet evapotranspiration and crop demand. If the water content of the soil goes below the wilting point, the first water added to this soil must address soil demand. After the needs of the soil are satisfied, additional irrigation water addresses plant demand.<\/p>\n<h2>Soil compaction determines pore size and volume distribution and ultimately the amount of soil water and nutrient available to the plant<\/h2>\nHighly productive, well-aggregated, agricultural soils tend to consist of about 50% solids and about 50% pore space with an equal distribution of macropores and micropores in this pore space (Brady, 1990). This ratio of macropores to micropores allows soil to store ample water for plant growth while allowing for gaseous exchange in the soil profile to provide oxygen to plant roots. Soil minerals have a particle density of about 2.6 g\/ml, so a soil consisting of 50% pore volume will have a bulk density near 1.3 g\/ml.<\/p>\nA noticeable reduction in the percent of macropores is apparent if soil bulk density of a silt loam soil approaches 1.6 g\/ml and macropores are almost non-existent as the bulk density approaches 2.0 g\/ml. Modern broadacre crop production requires heavy machinery to pass over the soil. Soil is compacted with each machinery operation. Based on published studies, soil in corn production increases bulk density (more compacted) by 19% and decreases pore volume by 15% when compared to undisturbed soil of the same soil type (Brady, 1990). The soil’s first response to compaction is to decrease the size, percentage, and distribution of macropores.<\/p>\nCompaction reduces the soil’s ability to supply water to the crop plants because:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Compacted soils drain more slowly, allowing less water to penetrate the soil profile during rainfall or irrigation.<\/li>\n<li>A reduction in macropores slows the rate of gaseous exchange and water movement associated with root uptake.<\/li>\n<li>Compacted soils limit the ability of plant roots to grow into new soil to extract water and nutrients.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2>Compacted soils drain more slowly, allowing less water to penetrate the soil during rainfall or irrigation<\/h2>\nOne method to view how compaction limits water movement is to view the wet edge of water as a mass of water moves through the soil profile. Figure 9 shows the leading edge of water movement as this water passes through and around a zone of highly compacted soil placed within a zone of soil not compacted. The rate of water infiltration depends on the amount and size of the macropores.<\/p>\nAs a comparison, it is much easier to pump water through a one-inch hose that it is to pump water through the tiny orifice of a spray nozzle. As the amount of compaction increases, the percent of macropores decrease. If the more compacted zone is a uniform sheet near the soil surface, the rate of water infiltration deeper into the root zone of the soil profile is restricted during rainfall or irrigation, potentially reducing the ability to fully ‘recharge’ the water-holding capacity of the soil. Improper tillage of soils that are worked a bit too wet can cause a sheeted zone of compaction near the soil surface.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/552.jpeg\" alt=\"image017.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 9.<\/strong> Water, as it drains through the soil profile, is limited by a zone of highly compacted soil (outlined by the red box). Water drains through less compacted soil more quickly and eventually begins to move below the zone of high compaction (blue arrows).<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>A reduction in macropores slows the rate of gaseous exchange and water movement associated with root uptake<\/h2>\nThere are two critical problems if the pore volume is predominantly micropores (Hillel, 1980). First, roots require oxygen for proper growth. If all soil pores are filled with water, there is no opportunity for gaseous exchange in the soil profile, so there is limited opportunity for roots to extract critical amounts of oxygen from the soil atmosphere. Second, plant-available water moves primarily via unsaturated flow. For example, corn roots penetrate about 1% of the total soil volume as the corn plant grows. As corn roots grow through the soil profile, they extract plant-available water within the soil zone immediately surrounding the roots. The soil responds by allowing water further from the roots to be pulled toward the corn roots via unsaturated flow. During unsaturated flow, water movement is very slow and becomes even slower as the pore size decreases. Corn plants growing in the same soil type are therefore more likely to show and respond to greater water stress in the more compacted soil.<\/p>\n<h2>Compacted soils limit the ability of roots to grow into new soil to extract water and nutrients<\/h2>\nOne way to illustrate the effect of compaction on root growth is with the following greenhouse study. Seeds of corn were planted into soil compacted to bulk densities of 1.17, 1.25, and 1.38 g\/ml in soil columns. Corn plants were harvested at the V5 growth stage. Shoot growth and leaf stature differed little among corn plants growing in these three soil treatments. However, root growth decreased dramatically as soil compaction increased (Figure 10). In compacted soils, limited root growth limits the opportunity for water and nutrient uptake.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/560.jpeg\" alt=\"image018.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 10.<\/strong> Root growth of corn plants (V5 growth stage) growing in soil compacted to different bulk densities before corn seeds are planted. Roots were washed and dry weights were recorded for each soil treatment. Root dry weights were 2.47 g, 1.77 g, and 1.43 g for the 1.17 g\/ml, 1.25 g\/ml, and 1.38 g\/ml soil bulk density, respectively.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Soil compaction is an unavoidable result of broadacre cropping<\/h2>\nEach pass of an implement in crop production compacts the soil. Soil compaction cannot be eliminated, so it must be managed. Ways to manage soil compaction are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Whenever practical, match implement sizes so that various implements follow the same wheel tracks<\/li>\n<li>Do not randomly drive across fields with heavy equipment such as full grain chaser bins; follow already established wheel tracks when possible<\/li>\n<li>conditions are correct for tillage operations; wetter soils are more prone to compaction<\/li>\n<li>Reduce the number of tillage operations per growing season. Tillage reduces compaction in the tilled zone but often increases soil compaction just below the zone of tillage<\/li>\n<li>Properly match equipment weights and load distributions with tillage operations<\/li>\n<li>Manage your operation to increase soil organic matter content<\/li>\n<li>Plant rotational crops or winter cover crops with root structures that tend to reduce soil compaction as these roots proliferate throughout the soil<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nReferences<\/strong><\/p>\nBrady, N. C. 1990. The nature and properties of soils, 10th ed. pp. 91-152. MacMillan Publishing Co., New York. Hillel, D. 1980. Fundamentals of soil physics. pp. 21-54 and 123-165. Academic Press, Inc., New York. Strachan, S. D. and M. Jeschke. 2017. Water, soil nutrients, and corn grain yield. DuPont Pioneer Crop Insights, Vol. 27. No. 7.<\/p>\n1 Pioneer Research Scientist - Stephen D Strachan PhD<\/em> 2 Pioneer Agronomy Information Manager - Mark Jeschke, PhD<\/em><\/p>\nThe foregoing is provided for informational use only. Please contact your local Pioneer Seeds representative for information and suggestions specific to your operation. Product performance is variable and depends on many factors such as moisture and heat stress, soil type, management practices and environmental stress as well as disease and pest pressures. Individual results may vary.<\/p>\nGA0623-03A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":562,"parent_id":383,"name":"water-retention-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":334858,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.56":"Water retention and nutrient availability in soil"},"created_at":"2022-01-30T19:59:46.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:37.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":562,"name":"water-retention-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/562.jpeg","readable_size":"327.01 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU2Mn0.PqVTLcU2FlKRk48RL3XgtiVXO9BocExlcTWKC0KJ1eI","full_path":"383\/562"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"water-retention-and-nutrient-availability-in-soil","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/water-retention-and-nutrient-availability-in-soil","meta_keywords":"Soil, texture, bulk density, water, penetration, oxygen","meta_description":"Understanding soil texture, bulk density, and water penetration is crucial to manage water retention and nutrient availability. 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Topics include planting techniques, seed quality, water management, choosing the right hybrids, disease resistance, and optimum spacing for crops. Stay updated with the latest technical knowledge to enhance your farming practices.","path_nodes":[{"id":8,"name":"General Agronomy Resources","name_id":"general-agronomy-resources"}],"parent_id":8,"position":20,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-18T04:01:10.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-10-04T01:27:31.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights and Tips","content_id":501,"full_name":"General Agronomy Resources \u203a Technical Insights and Tips","full_path":"resource-centre\/general-agronomy-resources\/technical-insights-and-tips","pivot":{"resource_id":56,"resource_category_id":20,"position":null}}]},"cat":{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":59,"name":"Establishing your corn crop successfully","type":"html","intro":"Successful corn emergence is a combination of three key factors \u2013 genetics, corn seed quality and environment.","content":"<h4><img style=\"float: right;\" src=\"\/asset\/566.png\" alt=\"image004.png\" \/><\/h4>\n<h4>Seed genetics<\/h4>\nHybrid genetics provide the basis for tolerance to cold stress. High corn seed quality helps ensure that the seed will perform up to its genetic ability. Pioneer Seeds concentrates on selecting the best genetics for consistent performance across a wide range of environments including stressful conditions.<\/p>\nA wide range of stress emergence conditions and soil temperatures have been seen in Pioneer Seeds ‘stress emergence’ (SE) field trials in Australia. To demonstrate how stress emergence scores relate to stand establishment in the field, hybrids are grouped by ‘low SE’ – those with an SE rating of 3 or 4, and ‘high SE’ – those with an SE rating of 6 or 7. As stress level increased, both the low SE and high SE hybrids experienced stand loss. However, the hybrids with a SE score of 6 or 7 were able to maintain higher stands as compared to those with a low SE score.<\/p>\n<h4>Seed quality<\/h4>\nPioneer Seeds corn seed quality program starts in the production field and is present through every process at the Narromine plant. In fact our world class seed production procedures ensure that Pioneer Seeds has the highest quality corn seed with minimum germination rates of 90%. Please bear in mind that seed is a living product and must be treated as such.<\/p>\n<h4>Environmental factors<\/h4>\nHowever, even with the best genetics and highest seed quality, environmental factors can still dictate stand establishment.<\/p>\nCorn is a warm-season crop and corn seedlings do best under warm conditions. To help understand optimal corn growth, three hybrids of early, mid and late maturities were germinated in temperatures ranging from 15 to 35 °C. Growth rates of both roots and shoots were measured. All three hybrids were averaged to determine the optimal temperature for corn growth. Both shoots and roots exhibited the fastest growth rate at 30 °C and continued to grow rapidly at 35 °C, suggesting optimal seedling germination and emergence occurs at much higher soil temperatures.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/567.png\" alt=\"image006.png\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 1:<\/strong> Average early root and shoot growth rates for three hybrids under four soil temperatures ranging from 15 to 35 °C.<\/p>\nWhen planting corn seeds, soil temperature remains a critical management factor to help growers minimise the risks associated with suboptimal conditions for successful germination. The timing of stress on seed is also an important factor. For instance, data suggests that planting corn seed before a cold front with rain can cause significant stand loss.<\/p>\nTo help understand the importance of the timing of cold stress, two hybrids with SE scores of 4 (below average) and 7 (above average) were allowed to germinate in rolled towels for 0, 24, or 48 hours at 25 °C. The hybrids were then subjected to a stress test of melting ice for three days and allowed to recover for 4 days at 25 °C. Hybrids were evaluated for the number of normal seedlings reported as a percentage of germination.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/568.png\" alt=\"image008.png\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 2:<\/strong> Germination of two hybrids with below-average genetic potential SE and above-average genetic potential SE following imbibitional chilling induced by melting ice. Ice was applied immediately after planting (0 hours) or after 24 hours or 48 hours of pre-germination in warm conditions.<\/p>\nBoth hybrids showed significant stand loss when the cold stress was imposed immediately (0 hours). However, the hybrid with a higher SE score had a higher percent germination than the hybrid with a low SE score. Germination rates for both hybrids were greatly improved if allowed to uptake water and germinate at warmer temperatures for at least 24 hours before the ice was added.<\/p>\nData suggest that planting just before a stress event such as a cold front can cause significant stand loss. The chances of establishing a good stand are greatly improved if hybrids are allowed to germinate for at least one day in warmer, moist conditions before a cold-stress event.<\/p>\nOne reason why temperature during imbibition is critical to corn emergence is the fact that seed imbibes most of the water needed for germination very rapidly. To illustrate the rapid timing of water uptake, seed was submerged in 10 °C water for three hours and weighed at intervals of 30, 60, 120 and 180 minutes to determine water uptake.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/569.png\" alt=\"image010.png\" \/><\/p>\nFigure 3:<\/strong> Amount of water taken up by corn seed during the first three hours after submersion in water with a temperature of 10 °C.<\/p>\nThe data show that seed imbibes the most water within the first 30 minutes after exposure to saturated conditions. If this early imbibition occurs at cold temperatures, it could kill the seed or result in abnormal seedlings. Growers should not only consider soil temperature at planting, but also the expected temperature when seed begins rapidly soaking up water. Seed planted in warmer, dry soils can still be injured if the dry period is followed by a cold, wet event.<\/p>\nStubble residue can adversely affect plant establishment because high amounts of residue tends to hold excess water which significantly lowers soil temperature.<\/p>\nTemperature fluctuations can between daytime and night can also negatively impact on stand establishment. Soil temperature can vary diurnally by 6 °C in some soils.<\/p>\n<h2>TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL CORN ESTABLISHMENT<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Aim to plant into soil that is 12°C between 8 am and 9 am and rising over three days at seeding depth.<\/li>\n<li>Avoid very early planting dates as this will not greatly improve harvest date but significantly increases risk of an establishment failure.<\/li>\n<li>Monitor soil temperatures before and after irrigating.<\/li>\n<li>Monitor water temperature when watering up on beds.<\/li>\n<li>Pre-irrigate and plant into moisture when growing corn on the flat.<\/li>\n<li>Minimise the time it takes to irrigate fields.<\/li>\n<li>In very dry fields a pre-irrigation may be the best option.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nPioneer Seeds is the leading developer and supplier of hybrid corn seeds in Australia. If you have any questions about planting corn seed, contact your local <a href=\"\/contact\/your-local-pioneer-representative\">Pioneer Seeds Territory Sales Manager or Farm Services Consultant.<\/a><\/p>","image":{"id":565,"parent_id":383,"name":"establishing-corn-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":504520,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.59":"Establishing your corn crop successfully"},"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:07:00.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:38.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":565,"name":"establishing-corn-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/565.jpeg","readable_size":"492.70 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU2NX0.XwlTSrubgcQz3DDKQqwAzpEJJedjEAz8tp1YgMIrTZI","full_path":"383\/565"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"establishing-your-corn-crop-successfully","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/establishing-your-corn-crop-successfully","meta_keywords":"corn, seed, genetics, quality, emergence, germination, seed, Australia","meta_description":"Learn the tips and tricks for establishing your corn crop successfully, including choosing quality seed with good genetics, proper equipment and soil preparation, and ensuring good germination and emergence rates. CN0623-09A","position":59,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-30T20:59:26.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:38.000000Z","heading":"Establishing your corn crop successfully","search":"establishing your corn crop successfully","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"Establishing your corn crop successfully","content_id":515,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":59},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":61,"name":"Hail decision guide for corn","type":"html","intro":"Hailstorms are a common occurrence yet making decisions on what to do with a damaged crop can be agonising. The following guidelines can be utilised to assess losses.","content":"<h2>Assess your stands<\/h2>\nIn order to achieve an assessment it is important to complete plant counts of damaged plants in the same way plant establishment is assessed. Check several areas of a field, as hail damage can vary greatly throughout a field.<\/p>\nPrior to the corn reaching a height of 20 cm, the growing point remains protected below the ground surface and stand losses are less likely. However, with severe hail, plants can be damaged to the point that death is a result. If time permits, observations should be made 7-10 days following the damage for accurate conclusions.<\/p>\nIf the growing point is present above ground you should always check for damage. Healthy growing points are white and firm. Injured growing points are soft and in time, will begin to turn brown similar to frost damaged plants. If observations are made immediately following a hailstorm, damaged plants can be overlooked. Be conscious of bruises on the stalks of small plants.<\/p>\nEstimating yield reductions due to stand reduction through the 10th actual leaf stage can be calculated utilising Table 1. When considering a replant situation it is also important to consider planting dates as they relate to potential yields. For example, it may be beneficial to leave a stand reduced to 45,000 plants per ha vs. replanting on 31 Dec to establish a stand of 75,000 plants per ha. Other factors to consider when assessing crops include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Gaps and skips have a negative effect<\/li>\n<li>Tables relate to stand reductions during the vegetative stages<\/li>\n<li>Consider the hybrid’s ability to flex ear size, or yield at low populations<\/li>\n<li>Weed control can negatively affect final yields<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/572.png\" alt=\"image003.png\" \/><\/p>\nTable 1<\/strong> Source: USA National Crop Insurance Association and the Crop Insurance Research Bureau, Inc.<\/p>\n<h2>Estimating leaf loss<\/h2>\nVisually estimating the percentage of leaf area loss takes practice and experience. The amount of leaf loss is usually over-estimated. In order to estimate losses accurately you can assess individual leaves of the corn plant and then compile an average leaf area loss for the plant. Another method is to visually estimate losses by observing whole plants individually. This method requires more practice to accurately estimate leaf loss. Smaller corn can handle significant leaf loss without much yield loss because it can quickly re-grow new leaves. Even at the 10-leaf stage, only about 25 per cent of the plant’s eventual leaf area has been unfurled.<\/p>\nIt is important to determine the stage of growth the crop was at when the damage actually occurred. Once this has been determined, use Table 2 to calculate yield losses. Remember, corn will add a new leaf every two to three days with normal weather conditions.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/573.png\" alt=\"image005.png\" \/><\/p>\nTable 2<\/strong> Source: USA National Hail Insurance Association<\/p>\n<h4>STALK BRUISING AND BREAKAGE<\/h4>\nStalks are damaged most from the time corn is knee-high until it begins to tassel. After tasseling, corn stalks become more rigid and are less susceptible to bruising and breakage. If a plant survives stalk damage, it typically will produce near-normal yields, but it will be at greater risk for stalk lodging before harvest. Judging losses prior to harvest is difficult.<\/p>\n<h4>EAR AND KERNEL DAMAGE<\/h4>\nEars are particularly susceptible to hail damage from the blister to dough stage. To assess, estimate the percent of damaged kernels.<\/p>\n<h4>WEEDS CAN THREATEN CROP RECOVERY<\/h4>\nWith reduced stands and an open crop canopy, weed growth can be rapid. If cultivation is possible it may be the best option. If herbicide weed control programs are to be implemented, allow time for the crop to resume growth prior to making applications.<\/p>\n<h4>CORN LEAF TIE-UP<\/h4>\nLeaf tie-up can be a common occurrence as emerging corn leaves get tied-up by the damaged older leaves. In most cases plants eventually break loose and survive; however, in severe cases death may be the result. If leaves do not break free easily, mechanical options have been attempted with limited success. Dry and windy weather usually is the best cure for this situation.<\/p>\n<h4>REPLANTING OPTIONS<\/h4>\nIf replanting becomes your only alternative consider your options carefully. It is extremely important to base your decisions upon economics rather than emotions at this stage.<\/p>\nConsider the following issues:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Alternative crops<\/li>\n<li>Rotation restrictions due to herbicide activity<\/li>\n<li>Insurance coverage<\/li>\n<li>Replanting costs and potential returns<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nContact your local <a href=\"\/contact\/your-local-pioneer-representative\">Pioneer Seeds representative<\/a> to assist with paddock assessments in the event of storm damage.<\/p>\nCN0623-10A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":571,"parent_id":383,"name":"hail-corn-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":350284,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.61":"Hail decision guide for corn","resources.138":"How does leaf loss impact corn yield?"},"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:42:43.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:41.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":571,"name":"hail-corn-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/571.jpeg","readable_size":"342.07 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU3MX0.NWTqnwc4DGd_QFQCEDcS-P6SVvFG1Zrn78HkU9choPQ","full_path":"383\/571"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"hail-decision-guide-for-corn","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/hail-decision-guide-for-corn","meta_keywords":"corn, hail, damage, count, assessment, guide, management","meta_description":"This hail decision guide for corn is designed to assist growers in assessing hail damage and making informed decisions based on their observations. Learn how to count the hail damage and assess whether to replant or continue with the current crop.","position":61,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:39:40.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:38.000000Z","heading":"Hail decision guide for corn","search":"hail decision guide corn","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":null,"content_id":517,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":61},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. Explore these topics and enhance your knowledge of corn cultivation.","path_nodes":[{"id":3,"name":"Corn resources","name_id":"corn-resources"}],"parent_id":3,"position":10,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:56:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:38:53.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info | Corn Resources","content_id":433,"full_name":"Corn resources \u203a Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","pivot":{"resource_id":61,"resource_category_id":4,"position":61}}]},"cat":{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. Explore these topics and enhance your knowledge of corn cultivation.","path_nodes":"[{\"id\":3,\"name\":\"Corn resources\",\"name_id\":\"corn-resources\"}]","parent_id":3,"position":10,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:56:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:38:53.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info | Corn Resources","content_id":433,"full_name":"Corn resources \u203a Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","attached_panels":[],"parent":{"id":3,"name":"Corn resources","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"orange","image":{"id":390,"parent_id":null,"name":"RC-Corn-TN.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":207149,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":500,"height":450,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resource_categories.3":"Corn resources"},"created_at":"2021-11-02T05:39:06.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:35:15.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":390,"name":"RC-Corn-TN.jpg","parent_id":null}],"link":"\/asset\/390.jpeg","readable_size":"202.29 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjM5MH0.IatcThJGNmFuLqro9g4K1PZ-yeItG2AFwbFo0xCTqmQ","full_path":"390"},"name_id":"corn-resources","path":"corn-resources","meta_keywords":null,"meta_description":null,"path_nodes":null,"parent_id":null,"position":1,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:36:33.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:35:15.000000Z","title":null,"content_id":432,"full_name":"Corn resources","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources"}}}}

{"data":{"resource":{"id":62,"name":"Hit the harvest window for maximum corn silage value","type":"html","intro":"It can be difficult to time corn silage harvest at the perfect moment, when starch content is high and yield potential is at its peak. It pays to maximize your ability to hit that moment and get the most out of your crop.","content":"Each year and every crop present different challenges. Weather, soil type variation and irrigation management are a few variables that can drastically impact corn drydown. As the crop matures, keep inspecting crops and taking notes of progress so you can make informed harvest plans. In particular, be sure to note the silking date. The corn plant approaches silage harvest maturity around 35 to 45 days after silking.<\/p>\nMaturity at harvest has a dramatic impact on the nutritional value. As the plant matures, starch content increases, which accounts for most of the improvement in feed quality. However, high dry matter (DM) content reduces fibre digestibility. Although the fibre digestibility drops at a slower rate than starch increases, growers should manage harvest dry matter to balance these two trends. Superior late-season plant health helps improve starch content and slow the decline of fibre digestibility.<\/p>\nHarvesting before plants reach optimal dry matter levels reduces yield per hectare and starch deposition, resulting in hidden economic loss. Harvesting corn silage at dry matter levels below 30 percent not only reduces yield, but also may result in seepage and undesirable fermentation.<\/p>\nResearch suggests that unprocessed silage achieves its maximum net energy yield at 34 percent DM (66 percent moisture). Corn silage processed with a kernel processor achieves a maximum net energy yield of 37 percent DM (63 percent moisture), if properly processed. Sampling is the best way to monitor plant maturity and harvest timing.<\/p>\nA quick way to determine if a corn silage crop is nearly ready for harvest and will produce a high yield is to break a cob in half and look at the kernels. A whitish line on the kernels, the milkline, shows where the solid and liquid parts of the kernels are separated. This line progresses from the outer edge of the kernel toward the cob. When the milkline reaches the cob, a black layer will be visible. Silage harvest typically begins when the milkline reaches the halfway point in the kernel.<\/p>\nMilkline progression only provides a rough reference point, however. It’s important to test a representative sample from the field to determine the dry matter level more accurately. Process plants in a chipper\/shredder and determine DM with one of several methods. You can send a sample to a lab, or check it using a drying oven, a food dehydrator or an old microwave.<\/p>\nDM is affected by storage structures - each has a different target. A DM of 32 to 38 percent works for most silage bunkers and drive-over piles. You may need 35 to 40 percent DM when using a silage bag. Upright silos vary by structure type. Harvest your corn silage at the correct dry matter range for the storage structure you have on hand and adjust to meet your feeding needs.<\/p>\nTiming is critical, so it can be a challenge to produce a high corn silage yield. Corn plants lose an average of about one percentage point per day when they hit the optimum moisture range. Adjust the start of harvest to maximize the amount of time the crop is in the correct range. Try to plan harvest so a continuous supply of corn silage cut at the proper moisture level arrives at the storage structure. This can be difficult because you can’t account for breakdowns, weather and other interruptions. Still, carefully planning which fields to harvest first often pays off in higher-quality \u200bcorn silage \u200bwith higher yields. With thoughtful planning and good data, you can manage the drydown period to work for you.<\/p>\n<a href=\"\/contact\/your-local-pioneer-representative\">Contact your local Pioneer® Seeds<\/a> if you require further information on how to achieve a high-yield corn silage harvest.<\/p>","image":{"id":574,"parent_id":383,"name":"hit-the-harvest-window-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":243802,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.62":"Hit the harvest window for maximum corn silage value"},"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:55:16.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:38.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":574,"name":"hit-the-harvest-window-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/574.jpeg","readable_size":"238.09 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU3NH0.GYfwq3uF7Uii5HZHH7toHtDiZyDs_eEwe9-HgniVh5A","full_path":"383\/574"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"hit-the-harvest-window-for-maximum-corn-silage-value","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/hit-the-harvest-window-for-maximum-corn-silage-value","meta_keywords":"corn, drydown, irrigation, management, harvest, digestability, maize, silage","meta_description":"Maximising corn silage value is essential for livestock producers. Learn about proper irrigation, management, harvest, and dry-down techniques to optimise the quality and quantity of corn silage for your animals.","position":62,"active":1,"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:51:39.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:38.000000Z","heading":"Hit the harvest window for maximum corn silage value","search":"hit harvest window maximum corn silage value","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"Hit the harvest window for maximum corn silage value","content_id":518,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":62},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":67,"name":"Relating silk emergence at pollination to kernel set at harvest","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"Maximum kernel set and grain yield occur when pollen shed coincides with rapid silk growth<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Silks attached near the base of the ear emerge first, and silk emergence progresses toward the tip of the ear. Kernel set also progresses from the base to the tip of the ear.<\/li>\n<li>Under the environmental conditions of this study, silks remained receptive to pollination for about five to six days. Maximum silk growth was about 4.0cm per day.<\/li>\n<li>For the study described in this technical insight, the number of kernels per ear correlated highly (r2 = 0.95) with grain yield per ear.<\/li>\n<li>Grain yield was constant if the total number of kernels per ear was constant. The corn ear may compensate for poor kernel set at the base by producing more kernels at the tip.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nSuccessful harvest of corn seed or grain requires adequate pollen when silks are receptive during pollination. Pollen shed, or anthesis, is controlled by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The genetic background of the corn plant provides a general baseline for the necessary number of growing degree units until anthesis.<\/p>\nOnce pollen grains have matured inside corn anthers, these anthers begin to dry and dehisce. As anthers dehisce, they allow pollen grains to fall into the open air and possibly land on receptive corn silks. The process of pollen growth and maturation inside corn anthers with the subsequent drying and splitting of corn anthers to allow pollen release is similar to the process of growth and maturity in soybean, with the drying and splitting of the pods to release the soybean seeds.<\/p>\nEnvironmental conditions, such as relative humidity and temperature, are contributing factors for anther dehiscence. During summer nights, temperatures are relatively cooler and relative humidities higher, so anthers maintain a more hydrated state. During the day as the morning progresses, temperatures tend to increase and relative humidities decrease, thus drying corn anthers. Anthers containing mature pollen typically shed pollen around mid-morning. A tassel will normally shed pollen for about five days.<\/p>\nSilk emergence is also controlled by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The genetic background of the corn plant provides a general baseline for the necessary number of growing degree units until silks emerge. Temperature and available moisture also play extremely critical roles for silk emergence, elongation, and exsertion past the tip of the husk.<\/p>\nUnder ideal temperature and moisture conditions for corn growth, silk exsertion is very rapid and consistent throughout similar areas of the field. However, if corn plants are subjected to dry conditions or drought stress, silk emergence may be delayed and rates of silk growth reduced. Changes in silk growth may affect the number of kernels set on the harvested ear.<\/p>\n<h2>Field study findings<\/h2>\nIn the USA, Pioneer conducted a field study relating silk growth at pollination to kernel set at harvest. Ear shoots were covered before any silks were exposed.<\/p>\nOn the day before silks were to be exposed to pollen, researchers selected 20 ear shoots, clipped the silks back to the tip of the husk, and covered them with ear shoot bags for 1 day.<\/p>\nThe next day, the shoot bags were removed from 10 of the shoots, exposing the silks to open pollination for 1 day. These ear shoots were then covered with bags to eliminate additional exposure to pollen.<\/p>\nThe remaining 10 ears were hand-harvested. New silk growth was measured from the tip of the husk for silks attached to developing ovules in kernel positions 5, 15, 25, and 35 from the base of the ear. Cob length and width were also measured. Silk lengths were measured by covering the exserted silks with red “carpenter’s chalk.”<\/p>\nThe ears were carefully extracted from the husks with silks still attached, and the lengths of red silks at the various kernel positions were measured.<\/p>\nThis procedure was repeated daily during the entire pollination window. Environmental and soil moisture conditions were nearly ideal for corn growth and pollination.<\/p>\nAfter the crop matured, the selected ears were harvested, kernels per ear were counted, and grain yield per ear was measured.<\/p>\n<h2>Relating daily silk growth to grain yield<\/h2>\nThe following series of pictures illustrates daily silk growth and kernel set of matched ears during pollination. Data in the graphs are averages of 10 replications. Pictures for a particular day represent average responses.<\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/582.jpeg\" alt=\"image001.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Pictures for the 12 days during pollination follow the same format: a picture of the developing ear and a picture of a corresponding ear at harvest.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/583.jpeg\" alt=\"image002.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Silks first emerge from near the base of the ear. Silks must intercept pollen for kernel set to occur.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/584.jpeg\" alt=\"image003.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Initially, silks grow most rapidly at the base of the ear. Kernel set matches silk emergence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/585.jpeg\" alt=\"image004.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Silks along the ear grow at different rates. Silks grow very rapidly for a short time and then begin to slow down in rate of growth. (Field at 50% silk.)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/587.jpeg\" alt=\"image005.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Under these environmental conditions, maximum silk growth was ~4.0cm\/day. Silk growth is slower under drier conditions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/587.jpeg\" alt=\"image005.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">All silks are visible and rapidly growing. Pollination of the entire ear can be completed in one day.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/586.jpeg\" alt=\"image006.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">All silks are visible and growing. This is the second of two days in which the entire ear was pollinated.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/588.jpeg\" alt=\"image007.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Silks toward the base of the ear are growing much more slowly and losing receptivity. Kernel set is poor at the base of the ear.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/590.jpeg\" alt=\"image008.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Under these environmental conditions, silks remained viable for five to six days. The first silks to emerge are the first silks to lose pollen receptivity.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/591.jpeg\" alt=\"image009.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Silk growth slows while cob growth increases substantially. The ear produces more kernels at the tip to compensate for fewer kernels at the base.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/593.jpeg\" alt=\"image011.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">Silks along the entire ear remain receptive to pollen for five to six days. The sequence in loss of silk receptivity follows the sequence of silk emergence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 24.1983%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/592.jpeg\" alt=\"image012.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 75.8017%;\">As silk growth slows, the developing ear converts more energy into cob growth to provide space, water, and nutrients for developing kernels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n<h2>Cumulative growth during pollination <\/h2>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 21.4079%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/594.jpeg\" alt=\"image013.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 78.5921%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Silks continue to grow until either the developing ovule to which the silk is attached is fertilized or until the silk completes its life cycle.<\/li>\n<li>Total silk growth approaches approximately nine inches past the tip of the husk.<\/li>\n<li>Based on daily silk and cob measurements during pollination, the developing ear focuses the majority of its resources on silk growth in order to better catch viable pollen.<\/li>\n<li>After a few days, silk growth lows and the developing ear focuses its resources on cob growth in order to provide space and support for developing kernels.<\/li>\n<li>The probability of successful pollination decreases as silks enter the latter phases of their life cycles.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <img src=\"\/asset\/597.jpeg\" alt=\"image014.jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/596.jpeg\" alt=\"image015.jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/595.jpeg\" alt=\"image016.jpg\" \/><\/p>\n <\/p>\n<h2>Estimating percent of pollination <\/h2>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 41.1504%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/599.jpeg\" alt=\"image017.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 58.8496%;\"><img src=\"\/asset\/598.jpeg\" alt=\"image018.jpg\" \/><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 41.1504%;\">Covered ear (silks not exposed to pollen).<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 58.8496%;\">Normal ear (silks exposed to pollen daily).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\nSilks remain attached to the developing ovule until the ovule is fertilised. After the male and female gametes have fused, the developing ovule creates an abscission layer at the base of the silk. The silk no longer receives water and nutrients, causing the silk to turn brown and die. Usually a silk will start to turn brown about one day after successful fertilisation. A more accurate and timely method to estimate the percent of successful pollination in a field is the following method:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Remove the ear from the plant.<\/li>\n<li>Gently peel the husks from the ear so that the silks are disturbed as little as possible.<\/li>\n<li>Grab the ear by the base and hold the ear so that the tip is pointing toward the ground.<\/li>\n<li>Gently shake the ear. Silks will fall from fertilized ovules, while silks of ovules not fertilized will remain attached to the developing ovules.<\/li>\n<li>Percent pollination is equal to the percent of ovules with no silks attached.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nA few silks may remain attached to ovules after pollination is complete. In this study, the silks that were still attached did not grow past the tip of the husk (see picture above). When this occurs, the end result is a mature ear with a few missing kernels.<\/p>\nUnder certain environmental conditions, some hybrids may produce ears with a few missing kernels at the base of the ear even when moisture and pollination conditions appear to be ideal. In these studies, total growth of silks at the very base of the ear was less than total silk growth along the rest of the ear (see “Cumulative Growth During Pollination”). The combination of slightly less total silk growth at the base of the ear and the tendency for silks to occasionally not emerge from the husk may at least partially explain this incomplete kernel fill.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/600.jpeg\" alt=\"image019.jpg\" \/><\/p>\nThe crown of the mature corn kernel has a silk scar where the silk was attached to the developing ovule. This silk scar can be difficult to see on kernels of some corn hybrids. This photo is of a corn hybrid that shows a prominent silk scar at maturity.<\/p>\n<h2>Estimating grain yield when incomplete pollination occurs<\/h2>\nGrain yield per ear is a function of the total number of kernels produced multiplied by the weights of these individual kernels. In these studies, grain yield per ear correlated very highly with the number of kernels produced per ear. A small loss in kernel number does not substantially reduce grain yield because the kernels surrounding the area of the missing kernel will often compensate by becoming a bit larger. However, as the loss in kernel count becomes excessive, the remaining kernels on the ear cannot grow sufficiently to compensate for the loss in kernel numbers. Ears produced on “Day 5” and “Day 8” have different appearances but similar grain yields and kernel counts. Corn ears will often compensate for poor kernel fill at the base of the ear by increasing the kernel fill at the tip. The corn plant has a specific amount of resources that it will devote to grain fill. During the grain-filling interval, the corn plant will adapt to the best of its ability with the resources available to produce maximum yield of the viable kernels attached to the corn ear.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/601.png\" alt=\"image020.png\" \/><\/p>\nGrain yield per hectare is also a function of the total number of kernels per hectare times the individual weights of these kernels. Approximately 85% of the variability in grain yield is related to the number of kernels produced per hectare while the remaining 15% of the variability in grain yield is related to the weights of these kernels (Otegui et al., 1995).<\/p>\nCorn growing on hectare of soil under specific environmental conditions is capable of devoting a certain amount of resources to grain yield. Two corn paddocks with similar grain yields will most likely have similar amounts of kernels produced per hectare. The paddock with the higher population will likely have more but smaller, harvested ears than a paddock planted at a lower population. The challenge before agronomists and farmers is to manage an ever-changing supply of resources so that the corn properly partitions these resources between vegetative and grain yield demands.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/602.png\" alt=\"image022.png\" \/><\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/603.png\" alt=\"image023.png\" \/><\/p>\nThe foregoing is provided for informational use only. Please contact your local Pioneer Seeds representative for information and suggestions specific to your operation. Product performance is variable and depends on many factors such as moisture and heat stress, soil type, management practices and environmental stress as well as disease and pest pressures. Individual results may vary.<\/p>\n<h4>Acknowledgements<\/h4>\nOriginal Author: Stephen D. Strachan, Ph.D., Pioneer Research Scientist.<\/p>\n<h4>Reference<\/h4>\nOtegui, M. E., F. H. Andrade, and E. E. Suero. 1995. Growth, water use, and kernel abortion of maize subjected to drought at silking. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":113,"name":"Pioneer Corn hybrid naming conventions","type":"html","intro":null,"content":"Pioneer’s hybrid naming system is designed to help growers instantly recognise the base genetics, comparative relative maturity (CRM) and traits of a corn hybrid.<\/p>\nAll Pioneer brand corn hybrid names will begin the letter P, indicating a Pioneer brand hybrid, followed by four numbers. The first two numbers will identify the approximate CRM of the platform. For platforms over 100 CRM, only the last two digits will be used, thus hybrid P1481 would have a CRM of approximately 114.<\/p>\nThe second pair of numbers (in P1481, the numbers “81”) is a random number.<\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/781.png\" alt=\"Asset 1.png\" width=\"360\" height=\"222\" \/><\/p>\nTo identify added traits, the naming system will offer letters following the number to indicate exactly which traits are contained in the hybrid. For example, a corn hybrid named P1315-IT features Imidazolinone Tolerance<\/span>. For waxy corn hybrids, there will be an “E” and for white corn hybrids, “W” will be used.<\/span><\/p>\n<img src=\"\/asset\/783.png\" alt=\"Asset 2.png\" width=\"472\" height=\"220\" \/><\/span><\/p>\nSG0623-05A<\/span><\/p>","image":{"id":787,"parent_id":383,"name":"corn-hybrid-names-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":251889,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.113":"Pioneer Corn hybrid naming conventions"},"created_at":"2022-08-12T05:49:17.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:40.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":787,"name":"corn-hybrid-names-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/787.jpeg","readable_size":"245.99 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjc4N30.8OmWClja3XD3o3ziFYzJ2KB3IbjI1FSm0OJJDPY4Q9U","full_path":"383\/787"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"pioneer-corn-hybrid-naming-conventions","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/pioneer-corn-hybrid-naming-conventions","meta_keywords":"Pioneer, hybrid, naming, conventions, brand, numbers","meta_description":"Pioneer uses a specific naming convention for their corn hybrids that includes various elements such as brand, numbers, and letters. 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Explore these topics and enhance your knowledge of corn cultivation.","path_nodes":[{"id":3,"name":"Corn resources","name_id":"corn-resources"}],"parent_id":3,"position":10,"active":1,"created_at":"2021-10-27T23:56:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2023-12-01T01:38:53.000000Z","title":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info | Corn Resources","content_id":433,"full_name":"Corn resources \u203a Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","full_path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","pivot":{"resource_id":113,"resource_category_id":4,"position":67}}]},"cat":{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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{"data":{"resource":{"id":138,"name":"How does leaf loss impact corn yield?","type":"html","intro":"When a series of trials were conducted to examine the impact of corn leaf removal on yield and stalk quality it was concluded that the entire canopy is important to final yield, even as late as the R5 stage of crop development.","content":"<img class=\"float-md-right ml-md-3 mb-3 mb-md-0\" src=\"\/asset\/1122.jpeg\" alt=\"Picture3.jpg\" width=\"341\" height=\"256\" \/><\/p>\nGrowers should proactively protect healthy leaf area through appropriate hybrid selection, followed up with fungicide applications if the risk of foliar disease infestation looks like impacting crop economics.<\/p>\nIf enough leaf area is lost before grain physiological maturity, it can lead to solubilisation and remobilisation of the carbohydrates in the stalk.<\/p>\nThis can result in poor late season stalk integrity, stalk lodging and harvest issues.<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"color: #212529; font-family: proxima-nova, sans-serif;\">Figure 1. (right): All leaves below ear removed at R3 stage of crop development.<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/h5>\n<h2 style=\"margin-top: 2rem;\">Key findings<\/h2>\n<ul style=\"list-style-type: square;\">\n<li>The impact of leaf removal on yield and late season stalk integrity is highly dependent on which leaves on the plant are removed.<\/li>\n<li>Yield components of kernel number and ear weight were both affected by loss of leaf area at the R4 and R5 stage of crop development.<\/li>\n<li>This study demonstrated the importance of protecting the crop from leaf area loss as late as the R5 stage of crop development.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"margin-top: 2rem;\">Objectives<\/h2>\nLoss of healthy leaf area in corn due to factors such as foliar diseases, pest infestations, or hail damage that reduces the supply of photosynthate for filling the ear, which can reduce yield.<\/p>\nLost leaf area can also lead to reduced stalk quality and standability as the plant remobilises carbohydrates from the stalk to compensate for the reduction in photosynthesis.<\/p>\nAt a demonstration site in 2022, leaves were removed from corn plants during grain fill to show the effects of reduced leaf area on yield and stalk quality.<\/p>\nIn one demonstration, leaves were removed at the R2-R3 development stage and in the other at the R4 stage and R5 stage.<\/p>","image":{"id":571,"parent_id":383,"name":"hail-corn-tn.jpg","description":null,"storage":"assets","size":350284,"extension":"jpeg","mime_type":"image\/jpeg","width":800,"height":600,"keywords":null,"usage":{"resources.61":"Hail decision guide for corn","resources.138":"How does leaf loss impact corn yield?"},"created_at":"2022-01-30T21:42:43.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:41.000000Z","readonly":null,"value":null,"_meta":null,"node_path":[{"id":383,"name":"Resources","parent_id":null},{"id":571,"name":"hail-corn-tn.jpg","parent_id":383}],"link":"\/asset\/571.jpeg","readable_size":"342.07 kB","secured":false,"secured_token":"eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdG9yYWdlcyI6WyJzZWN1cmVfYXNzZXRzIl0sImZpbGUiOjU3MX0.NWTqnwc4DGd_QFQCEDcS-P6SVvFG1Zrn78HkU9choPQ","full_path":"383\/571"},"file":null,"file_url":null,"video":null,"video_name":null,"video_location":null,"name_id":"how-does-leaf-loss-impact-corn-yield","path":"resource-centre\/corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info\/how-does-leaf-loss-impact-corn-yield","meta_keywords":"corn, maize, hybrid, leaf, loss, impact, yield, study, research, ear, weight, kernel","meta_description":"Technical update outlining research into corn leaf removal on yield and stalk quality","position":138,"active":1,"created_at":"2023-08-15T06:38:03.000000Z","updated_at":"2024-09-23T21:46:41.000000Z","heading":"What impact does leaf loss have on corn yield?","search":"does leaf loss impact corn yield ","keywords":null,"meta_no_index":0,"is_technote":0,"hybrid_id":null,"title":"What impact does leaf loss have on corn?","content_id":754,"pivot":{"resource_category_id":4,"resource_id":138},"categories":[{"id":4,"name":"Technical Insights & Agronomy Info","intro":null,"content":null,"colour":"transparent","image":null,"name_id":"technical-insights-agronomy-info","path":"corn-resources\/technical-insights-agronomy-info","meta_keywords":"water availability, grain fill, snap, seed, potassium, tillers, smut, silage, hail","meta_description":"Discover technical insights and agronomy information regarding corn (maize), including topics such as water requirements, grain fill process, snap varieties, potassium fertilisation, tiller management, prevention of smut, and tips for silage production. 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